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Tte  PiianoiR8R8  and  Theories  of  Exlosiosi 


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..^a  EditrSon,  Revised  aktt  Knlarged 


NEW  TOEK 

D,    VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY 
;  MURRAY  AND  27  WARREN  STIU 
1907 


from  the  French  of  A.  Mallet.     Second  edition,  revised 
with  results  of  American  Practice,  by  Richard  H.  Buel, 
C.E. 
*No.  11.     THEORY    OF  ARCHES.     By   Prof.   W. 

Allan./ 

I    No.  12.    THEORY  OF  VOUSSOIR  ARCHES.     By 
Prof.  Wm.  Cain.     Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 


THE   VAN   NOSTRAND   SCIENCE    SERIES 

No.  13.     GASES  MET  WITH  IN  COAL  MINES. 

By  J.  J.  Atkinson.  Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged, 
to  which  is  added  The  Action  of  Coal  Dusts  by  Edward 
H.  Williams,  Jr. 

No.  14.    FRICTION  OF  AIR  IN  MINES.      By  J.  J. 

Atkinson.     Second  American  edition. 

No.  15.    SKEW  ARCHES.      By  Prof.  E.  W.  Hyde, 

C.E.     Illustrated.     Second  edition. 

No.  16.    GRAPHIC    METHOD     FOR     SOLVING 

Certain  Questions  in  Arithmetic  or  Algebra.  By  Prof. 
G.  L.  Vose.  Third  edition. 

*No.  17.    WATER     AND     WATER-SUPPLY.      By 

Prof.  W.  H.  Corfield,  of  the  University  College,  London. 
Second  American  edition. 

No.  18.  SEWERAGE  AND  SEWAGE  PURHI- 

cation.  By  M.  N.  Baker,  Associate  Editor  "Engineer- 
ing News."  Fourth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  19.      STRENGTH       OF       BEAMS       UNDER 

Transverse  Loads.  By  Prof.  W.  Allan,  author  of 
"Theory  of  Arches."  Second  edition,  revised. 

No.  2O.    BRIDGE  AND  TUNNEL  CENTRES.      By 

John  B.  McMaster,  C.E.     Second  edition. 

No.  21.    SAFETY   VALVES.     By  Richard  H.  Buel, 

C.E.     Third  edition. 

No.  22.    HIGH  MASONRY  DAMS.      By  E.  Sher- 
man Gould,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.     Second  edition. 

No.  23.    THE    FATIGUE    OF    METALS    UNDER 

Repeated  Strains.  With  various  Tables  of  Results  and 
Experiments.  From  the  German  of  Prof.  Ludwig 
Spangenburg,  with  a  Preface  by  S.  H.  Shreve,  A.M. 

No.  24.  A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE 

Teeth  of  Wheels.  By  Prof.  S.  W.  Robinson.  Third 
edition,  revised,  with  additions. 

No.  25.     THEORY      AND      CALCULATION      OF 

Cantilever  Bridges.     By  R.  M.  Wilcox. 

No.  26.  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  PROP- 

erties  of  Continuous  Bridges.     By  Charles  Bender,  C.Jil. 

No.  27.   BOILER  INCRUSTATION  AND  CORRO- 

sion.  By  F.  J.  Rowan.  New  edition.  Revised  and 
partly  rewritten  by  F.  E.  Idell. 

*No.  28.   TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER  BY  WIRE 

Ropes.     By  Albert  W.  Stahl,  U.S.N.     Fourth  edition, 
revised. 
No.  29.     STEAM  INJECTORS;  THEIR  THEORY 

and  Use.  Translated  from  the  French  by  M.  Leon 
Pochet. 


THE   VAN  NOSTRAND   SCIENCE  S  ERIES 

No.  30.    MAGNETISM  OF  IRON  VESSELS  AND 

Terrestrial  Magnetism.     By  Prof.  Fairman  Rogers. 

No.  31.    THE  SANITARY  CONDITION  OF  CITY 

and  Country  Dwelling-houses.  By  George  E.  Waring, 
Jr.  Third  edition,  revised. 

No.  32.    CABLE-MAKING     FOR     SUSPENSION 

Bridges.     B.  W.  Hildenbrand,  C.E. 

No.  33.    MECHANICS     OF    VENTILATION.      By 

George  W.  Rafter,  C.E.     Second  edition,  revised. 

No.  34.      FOUNDATIONS.         By       Prof.       Jules 

Gaudard,  C.E.  Translated  from  the  French.  Second 
edition. 

No.  35.  THE      ANEROID      BAROMETER;     ITS   i 

Construction     and     Use.     Compiled     by     George     W.    j 
Plympton.     Eleventh  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  36.    MATTER    AND  MOTION.     By  J.  Clerk   j 

Maxwell,  M.A.     Second  American  edition. 

*No.  37.    GEOGRAPHICAL     SURVEYING;      ITS- 

Uses,  Methods,  and  Results.  By  Frank  De  Yeaux 
Carpenter,  C.E. 

No.  38.    MAXIMUM     STRESSES     IN     FRAMED 

Bridges.  By  Prof.  William  Cain,  A.M.,  C.E.  New 
and  revised  edition. 

No.  39.    A     HANDBOOK     OF    THE     ELECTRO- 

Magnetic  Telegraph.  By  A.  E.  Loring.  Fourth  edi- 
tion, revised. 

*No.  40.       TRANSMISSION     OF     POWER     BY 

Compressed  Air.     By  Robert  Zahner,  M.E. 

j   No.  41.      STRENGTH        OF       MATERIALS.     By 

William  Kent,  C.E.,  Assoc.  Editor  "Engineering  News." 
Second  edition. 

I   No.  4?.     THEORY        OF        STEEL  -  CONCRETE 

Arches,  and  of  Vaulted  Structures.  By  Prof.  Wm. 
Cain.  Fifth  edition,  thoroughly  revised. 

No.  43.    WAVE     AND     VORTEX     MOTION.     By 

Dr.  Thomas  Craig,  of  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

No.  44.     TURBINE       WHEELS.      By  Prof.  W.  P. 

Trowbridge,  Columbia  College.  Second  edition.  Re- 
vised. 

No.  45.     THERMODYNAMICS.      By    Prof.    C.    F. 

Hirshfeld.     Second  edition,  revised  and  corrected. 

No.  46.     ICE-MAKING      MACHINES.      From  the 

French  of  M.  Le  Doux.  Revised  by  Prof.  J.  E.  Denton, 
D.  S.  Jacobus,  and  A.  Riesenberger.  Sixth  edition, 
revised. 


EXPLOSIVE  MATERIALS 


The  Phenomena  and  Theories  of  Explosion 

AND  THE  CLASSIFICATION,  CONSTITUTION 
AND  PREPARATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES 


BY 
COLONEL  JOHN  P.  WISSEE 

COAST  ARTILLERY  CORPS 

Military  Attache  to  the  American  Embassy  in  Berlin 


Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged 


NEW  YORK 

D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY 

23  MUBBAY  AND   27   WABBEN    SlBEETS 
1907 


Copyright   1898,  1907, 

BY 

D.  VAN  NOSTBAND  COMPANY 


PREFACE. 


THE  first  edition  of  this  number  of  Van 
Nostrand's  Science  Series  having  become 
exhausted,  it  became  necessary,  in  order 
to  keep  the  series  complete,  to  issue  a 
new  edition.  But  in  the  fifteen  years 
which  have  elapsed  since  the  appearance 
of  the  first  edition,  many  changes  have 
taken  place  in  the  views  regarding  the 
phenomena  of  explosions,  and  many  new 
explosives  have  attracted  the  world's  at- 
tention, particularly  the  important  class 
of  smokeless  powders.  Therefore,  since 
the  theory  advanced  by  Berthelot  no 
longer  accounts  for  all  the  known  phe- 
nomena, it  was  deemed  best  by  the  pub- 
lishers to  have  the  entire  number  re- 
written. 

The  present  volume  is  the  result  of  this 
decision.  The  subject-matter  is  based  on 
the  original  essay  of  Berthelot,  and  suck 


360390 


IV  PREFACE. 

matter  has  been  added,  as  it  is  believed, 
will  render  the  little  work  more  generally 
useful. 

We  are  indebted  to  Prof.  J.  P.  Cooke 
of  Harvard  University  for  the  first  clear 
explanation  of  the  action  of  explosive 
compounds,  and  for  directing  attention  to 
the  necessity  for  studying  structural  for- 
ulse  in  this  connection.  The  few  pages 
devoted  to  the  subject  of  explosives  in 
the~new  work  of  Professor  Tillman  of  the 
U.  S.  Military  Academy,  present  the  sub- 
ject in  simple  language,  but  in  a  most 
satisfactory  way,  especially  as  regards  the 
distinctions  between  the  classes  of  explo- 
sive compounds.  But  the  greatest  author- 
ity on  explosives  in  this  country  is  prob- 
ably Professor  C.  E.  Munroe,  formerly  of 
the  U.  S.  Naval  Torpedo  Station,  now  of 
Columbia  University,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Traces  of  his  work  are  evident  in  all  the 
later  literature  on  the  subject,  and  much 
of  the  interest  in  the  field  of  explosives  in 
this  country  was  inspired  by  his  labors. 
Lieutenant  Walke,  in  charge  of  the  De- 
partment of  chemistry  and  explosives  at 


PREFACE.  V 

the  U.  S.  Artillery  School,  has  embodied 
the  gist  of  Professor  Munroe's  lectures  in 
the  new  edition  of  his  work,  which  has, 
besides,  excellent  descriptions  of  the  latest 
processes  of  manufacturing  the  principal 
explosives.  The  dictionary  of  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  J.  P.  Cundill,  R.  A.  (now  in  its 
second  edition)  is,  of  course,  invaluable  in 
the  study  of  the  latest  forms  of  smokeless 
and  other  powders,  and  we  were  fortunate, 
too,  in  learning  the  views  of  Professor 
Mendeleef  on  explosives,  through  the 
Proceedings  U.  S.  Naval  Institute,  Revise 
d'  Artillerie  and  Arms  and  Explosives. 

The  author,  therefore,  desires  to  express 
his  obligations  to  the  following  works, 
besides  the  original  volume  (No.  70)  of 
this  series. 

The  New    Chemistry.     Prof.   J.   P.  Cooke,  Jr. 

D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Descriptive    General    Chemistry.     Prof.    S.  E. 

Tillman,  U.  S.  Military  Academy. 
Lectures  on  Chemistry  and  Explosives.     Prof. 

Charles  E.  Munroe,     Naval  Torpedo  Station. 
Lectures  on  Explosives.    Lieut.  W.  Walke,   U.  S» 

Artillery  School.     Wiley  &  Sons. 


VI  PREFACE. 

Ordnance  and  Gunnery.  Gapt.  L.  L.  Bruff, 
U.  S.  Military  Academy.  Wiley  &  Sons. 

Dictionary  of  Explosives.  Lieut.  -  Col.  J.  P. 
Cundill,  R.  A.  London  :  Eyre  &  Spottiswoode. 

Militaer  -  Wochenblatt.     Mittler  u.  Sohn,  Berlin. 

Proceedings  U".  S.  Naval  Institute.  Annapolis, 
Md. 

Revue  d*  Artillerie.     Paris,  France. 

Arms  and  Explosives.     London,  England. 


J.  P.  W. 


FORT  MONROE,  VA., 

March  8,  1898. 


EXPLOSIVE  MATERIALS. 


An  explosive,  in  the  most  general  sense, 
is  a  substance  capable  of  a  sudden  and 
considerable  increase  of  volume. 

This  increase  of  volume  may  be  the  re- 
sult of  purely  physical  changes,  or  both 
physical  and  chemical  changes. 

The  expansion  of  gases  by  heat,  the  ex- 
plosive action  of  which  is  exemplified  in 
the  bursting  of  boilers ;  the  expansion  of 
gases  by  diminution  of  pressure  in  the 
surrounding  medium,  illustrated  in  the 
cyclone,  when  the  low  barometer  area 
passes  over  a  closed  house ;  the  bursting 
of  iron  shells  by  the  freezing  of  water 
confined  in  them ;  and  many  similar  phe- 
nomena are  examples  of  explosive  effects 
purely  physical  in  character. 

The  explosion  of  an  explosive  mixture 
of  gases  is  the  simplest  example  of  both 


chemical  and  physical  action,  the  gases 
first  combining  chemically,  then  the  heat 
produced  by  this  chemical  action  expand- 
ing the  resulting  gas  or  gases  physically. 
The  explosion  of  gunpowder,  guncotton 
or  nitroglycerine  involves,  in  addition,  the 
physical  change  of  state  from  solid  or 
liquid  to  gas. 

Explosive  materials  or  Explosives,  in  a 
restricted  sense,  are  substances  capable  of 
a  sudden  and  great  increase  of  volume, 
due  to  a  change  of  state  from  solid  or 
liquid  to  gas,  accompanied  by  chemical 
action  resulting  in  the  evolution  of  great 
heat,  the  latter  aiding  in  increasing  the 
original  volume  by  expanding  the  gases 
produced. 

Explosive  materials  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes : 

I.  Compounds. 

II.  Mixtures,     containing    nitro-com- 
pounds  or  organic  nitrates. 

III.  Mixtures,  containing  no  nitro-com- 
pounds  nor  organic  nitrates. 

Chemical  action  takes  place  only  at  in- 
finitely short  distances.  Now,  the  chemi- 


cal  molecules  of  substances  are  infinitely 
smaller  than  the  smallest  particles  into 
which  substances  can  be  mechanically 
divided,  and  since,  in  the  case  of  com- 
pounds, reaction  takes  place  between  the 
atoms  of  each  molecule,  we  have  the  most 
favorable  conditions  (in  this  respect)  pos- 
sible. In  mechanical  mixtures  of  any 
kind,  however  finely  divided  the  ingredi- 
ents may  be,  their  particles  are  still  of  ap- 
preciable size,  and  very  large  as  compared 
with  molecules.  Now,  in  the  case  of 
explosives  of  the  second  class  the  reac- 
tions take  place  partly  "between  the  atoms 
of  the  same  molecules,  and  partly  between 
the  atoms  of  different  molecules,  in  the 
former  the  reacting  atoms  being  at  infin- 
itely small  distances  apart,  in  the  latter 
all  except  those  at  and  near  the  surfaces 
of  contact  of  the  different  particles  being 
at  considerable  distances  apart;  hence/ 
the  conditions  are  less  favorable  than  in 
case  of  plain  compounds.  Finally,  in  the 
case  of  explosives  of  the  third  class,  the 
essential  reaction  takes  place  entirely  be- 
tween elements  of  different  substances; 


hence,  the  conditions  are  the  least  favor- 
able. 

Explosives  are  also  classified  as  liigli  ex- 
plosives and  low  explosives,  the  former  in- 
cluding those  in  which  the  chemical  action 
is  rapid  and  energetic,  the  latter  those  in 
which  the  action  is  relatively  slow ;  one 
producing  a  crushing  or  shattering  effect, 
the  other  a  propelling  or  pushing  effect. 
Technically,  the  high  explosives  comprise 
the  first  two  classes  of  explosive  materials, 
the  low  explosives  the  third  class,  but  the 
terms  are  merely  relative,  ordinarily,  so 
that  the  chlorate  group  of  the  third  class 
may  be  regarded  as  high  when  compared 
with  the  nitrate  group,  whereas  some  of 
the  modern  smokeless  powders,  since  they 
are  fit  for  use  in  cannon  and  small-arms, 
although  containing  high  explosive  in- 
gredients, are  themselves  low  explosives. 

THE  PHENOMENA  OF  EXPLOSION. 

The  various  explosives  differ  greatly  in 
force  of  explosion,  and  even  in  the  same 
explosive  the  force  is  modified  by  the 


physical  condition  of  the  explosive,  the 
external  conditions  surrounding  the  ex- 
plosive, and  the  method  of  initial  inflam- 
mation. 

In  all  cases  where  the  chemical  reac- 
tions are  accurately  known,  the  following 
data  are  required  to  define  the  action  of 
the  explosive : 

1.  The  cliemical  composition  of  the    ex- 
plosive. 

2.  The  chemical  composition  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  explosion  at  every  step  (includ- 
ing dissociation). 

3.  The  rapidity  with  which  the  action  takes 
place,  comprising  both  the  rapidity  of 
changes  at  the  origin  of  the  reactions 
and  the  rapidity  of  propagation  of  the 
reactions  (including   explosion   by  in- 
fluence). 

In  all  cases  where  the  chemical  reac- 
tions are  not  accurately  known,  the  fol- 
lowing data  are  required  to  define  the  ac- 
tion of  the  explosive : 

1.     The  quantity  of  heat  given  off  during 
the  reaction. 


6 

2.  The  volume  of  the  gases  formed  (meas- 
ured under  normal  pressure). 

3.  The  rapidity  with  which  the  reaction 
takes  place,  comprising  both  the  rapid- 
ity of  changes  at  the  origin  of  the 
reactions,  and  the  rapidity  of  propa- 
gation of  the  reactions  (including  ex- 
plosion by  influence). 

CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 

The  characteristic  features  common  to 
all  explosives  are  their  instability  and 
their  capacity  to  form  very  rapidly  a  large 
volume  of  gaseous  products.  Their  in- 
stability is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  ele- 
ments present  are  not  combined  with  one 
another  according  to  their  greatest  affini- 
ties, a  condition  which  leads  to  their  easy 
and  rapid  decomposition  with  little  loss  of 
heat,  while  their  capacity  to  form  rapidly  a 
a  large  volume  of  gaseous  products  de- 
pends on  their  rapid  decomposition,  on  the 
fact  that  the  elements  tend  to  re-combine 
according  to  their  greatest  affinities,  there- 
fore giving  off  great  heat,  and  on  the  fact 


that  the  products  are  gaseous,  and  are 
expanded  by  the  resultant  heat. 

In  the  case  of  explosive  gases,  or  mix- 
tures of  gases,  there  is  no  change  of  state, 
but  in  all  ordinary  explosives  there  is  a 
change  of  state  from  liquid  or  solid  to 
gas,  which*  still  further  increases  the 
effect. 

All  ordinary  explosives,  except  a  few  of 
the  chlorate  class  of  mixtures,  contain  ni- 
trogen, an  element  of  very  feeble  affini- 
ties, and  to  it  their  instability  is  largely 
due,  but  is  also  increased  by  the  fact  that 
other  elements  present  are  not  combined 
according  to  their  greatest  affinities.  In 
the  chlorates  the  weak  element  is  the 
chlorine,  not  because  it  is  generally  a 
weak  element  for  it  is  on  the  contrary 
usually  a  very  strong  element,  but  be- 
cause in  these  compounds  it  is  united  ac- 
cording to  its  weakest  affinity,  that  is  with 
oxygen. 

The  foregoing  considerations  are  suffi- 
cient to  explain  the  explosion  of  the 
binary  nitrogen  compounds. 

But,  all  explosives,  which  have  received 


8 

important  practical  application,  have  in 
addition  to  the  element  of  instability,  ni- 
trogen (or  chlorine  in  the  chlorates),  the 
oxidizable  elements  carbon  and  hydrogen 
(or  carbon  alone)  and  oxygen.  Explo- 
sion in  such  cases  is  really  a  form  of  com- 
bustion, the  reaction  being  very  energetic 
and  rapidly  propagated.  In  explosive 
compounds  these  elements  are  all  present 
in  the  molecule,  but  combined  in  a  manner 
not  according  to  their  greatest  affinities, 
and  in  order  to  understand  the  action  in 
their  explosion  it  is  necessary  to  study 
their  structural  formulae. 

Thus,  the  explosion  of  tetra  -  nitro  - 
naphthalene  may  be  represented  by  the 
following  equation: 

CIO  H4  (N  O2)4  =  2H20  +  6CO  +  4CN, 

but  this  reaction  in  itself  does  not  explain 
the  production  of  heat,  because  true  simple 
decomposition  (not  complicated  by  further 
recomposition)  always  absorbs  heat,  and  if 
the  elements  were  combined,  and  their 
affinities  satisfied  in  the  original  compound 
exactly  as  they  are  in  the  products  then 


cold  would  be  the  result  of  tlie  change 
and  not  heat. 

The  structural  formula,  however,  makes 
all  this  clear. 

0=-N=0  0=N=O 


-< 


0=N=O  O=N=O 

The  oxygen  atoms  are  not  united  di- 
rectly to  either  hydrogen  or  carbon  atoms  5 
indeed,  they  are  removed  as  far  as  possible 
from  the  hydrogen  atoms  (for  which  their 
affinity  in  this  molecule  is  greatest),  and 
are  connected  with  the  carbon  atoms  (their 
next  greatest  affinity)  only  through  an 
atom  of  nitrogen  (for  which  they  have 
the  least  affinity).  When  explosion  takes 
place  the  molecule  is  broken  up,  and 


10 

the  oxygen  atoms  rush  for  the  carbon 
and  hydrogen  atoms,  their  energy  being 
made  evident  in  the  form  of  heat. 

In  mixtures  the  oxidizable  substance  is 
usually  one  constituent  and  the  necessary 
oxygen  is  usually  contained  in  another  con- 
stituent. The  action  in  the  case  of  mix- 
tures is"  not  only  less  energetic  on  account 
of  the  appreciable  size  of  the  minute  par- 
ticles of  the  constituents  (as  compared 
with  the  molecules  of  compounds)  and 
the  consequent  greater  distance  between 
reacting  atoms,  but  is  also  slower  because 
the  molecules  (or  atoms  in  them)  of  the 
particles  are  removed  from  the  surface  of 
the  particles  in  succession,  the  latter 
wearing  away  in  successive  layers  as  the 
the  action  continues.  Hence,  true  mix- 
tures (those  in  which  the  principal  reac- 
tion is  between  atoms  of  different  mole- 
cules) are  less  energetic  than  true  com- 
pounds, or  than  those  mixtures  containing 
nitrous  or  nitric  derivatives,  (in  which  the 
principal  reaction  is  between  atoms  of  the 
same  molecule). 

The  practically  useful  explosives  are  in 


11 


the  liquid  or  solid  state,  and  this  for  two- 
reasons,  first,  because  they  are  easier  to 
transport  and  handle,  secondly,  because  the 
change  of  state  to  gas  implies  an  increase 
in  the  increase  of  volume.  In  the  case  of 
true  mixtures  there  is  another  advantage 
in  the  fact  that  a  large  quantity  of  oxygen,, 
available  for  the  oxidation  of  the  carbon 
or  hydrogen,  is  concentrated  in  a  very 
small  volume  (in  the  form  of  nitrates,, 
chlorates,  etc.),  resulting  in  greatly  in- 
creased chemical  activity  when  oxidation 
once  begins,  and  a  higher  temperature  is 
thus  produced  because  the  action  takes 
place  in  a  small  space,  and  the  heat 
evolved  is  better  utilized  in  raising  the 
temperature  of  the  products;  moreover, 
the  oxygen  atoms  are  probably  separated 
from  these  compounds  in  the  nascent 
state,  that  is,  as  separate  atoms  (O),  with 
high  combining  power,  and  not  as  mole- 
cules (0=0),  in  which  the  affinity  of  the 
atoms  is  satisfied  (in  a  low  degree)  by 
other  atoms  of  the  same  kind,  as  it  exists, 
in  gaseous  oxygen  or  atmospheric  air. 


12 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  REACTIONS. 

Every  chemical  compound  is  deter- 
mined by  the  kind,  the  number,  and  the 
arrangement  of  the  atoms  in  its  molecule. 
The  molecules  of  all  substances  are  in 
constant  motion.  Anything  that  increases 
the  amplitude  of  the  vibrations  beyond  a 
certain  limit,  breaks  up  the  molecule. 
Thus,  heat  (a  form  of  molecular  motion) 
is  one  of  the  commonest  agents  used  to 
decompose  compounds;  light  (another 
form  of  molecular  motion)  decomposes 
compounds  in  photography  and  in  vege- 
table life ;  and  finally,  electricity  (still 
another  form  of  molecular  motion)  causes 
chemical  decomposition  in  electrolysis. 

The  origin  of  the  chemical  transforma- 
tion in  explosion  is  always  some  force  due 
to  matter  in  motion,  either  the  motion  of 
the  matter  in  mass,  such  as  a  shock,  pres- 
sure or  friction,  or  the  motion  of  the 
molecules  of  bodies,  such  as  heat,  syn- 
chronous vibration  (sound  waves,)  or  vor- 
tex-ring motion.  This  motion,  if  motion 
in  mass,  is  communicated  to  the  molecules 


13 

of  the  explosive,  is  transformed  into  heat, 
and  appears  at  the  initial  point  as  that 
effect  of  heat  called  temperature,  every 
explosive  having  its  particular  temperature 
of  explosion,  which,  however,  varies  with- 
in certain  limits,  depending  on  the  rate  at 
which  the  heat  is  communicated,  substan- 
ces being  able  to  exist  at  temperatures 
above  their  temperature  of  decomposition, 
but  for  a  time  which  decreases  as  the  tem- 
perature rises. 

If  the  motion  be  that  of  vibrations  syn- 
chronous with  those  which  would  result 
from  the  explosion  of  the  substance  con- 
sidered, the  latter  being  in  a  state  of  high 
chemical  tension,  it  is  communicated 
through  space,  without  appreciable  change 
of  temperature  at  any  particular  point,  to 
the  molecules  of  the  explosive,  and  either 
produces  its  explosion  directly,  or  makes 
it  more  sensitive  to  the  effect  of  shock, 
thus  causing  its  explosion  indirectly. 

If  vortex  motion  is  set  up  by  explosion 
at  one  point,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  sur- 
faces surrounding  the  explosion  gases  are 
more  curved  at  some  points  than  at 


14 

others,  producing  tlie  greater  strain  at  the 
points  of  greater  curvature,  then  at  short 
distances  from  the  center  of  disturbance 
greater  effects  are  produced  in  some  direc- 
tions than  in  others,  and  these  effects  may 
again  lead  to  explosion ;  at  considerable 
distances  the  effects  tend  to  become  uni- 
form in  all  directions. 

The  last  two  actions  explain  sympa- 
thetic explosions,  or  explosions  by  influ- 
ence. 

The  physical  condition  of  an  explosive 
has  a  great  influence  on  the  explosive  re- 
action :  thus,  frozen  nitro-glycerine  can  be 
fired  only  with  great  difficulty,  and  we$ 
guncotton  requires  a  primer  of  dry  gun- 
cotton. 

,    THE  RAPIDITY  OF  THE  REACTIONS. 

The  rapidity  of  the  chemical  reaction  in 
explosion  varies  greatly  in  different  ex- 
plosives, and  even  in  the  same  explosive 
is  much  affected  by  various  circumstances. 

The  rapidity  of  the  reaction  increases 
with  the  temperature  according  to  a  very 


rapid  law;  it  also  increases  with  the  pres- 
sure in  the  case  of  gaseous  explosives; 
and  finally,  it  depends  upon  the  relative 
proportions  of  the  components. 

The  presence  of  an  inert  body  since  it 
absorbs  heat  and  consequently  lowers  the 
temperature,  without  exerting  any  influ- 
ence to  hasten  the  reaction,  retards  the 
actions.  In  this  way  the  character  of  an 
explosive  may  be  modified  or  entirely 
changed. 

When  the  speed  of  the  reactions  is  not 
great,  a  portion  of  the  heat  is  dissipated, 
and  the  rise  of  temperature  soon  ceases. 
This  limit  is  that  at  which  the  loss  of  heat 
by  radiation,  conduction,  etc.  is  equal  to 
the  gain  due  to  the  internal  reactions.  In 
this  case  the  reaction  takes  place  with  a 
nearly  constant  rapidity,  and  does  not  be- 
come explosive,  but  produces  what  is 
called  deflagration. 

Explosions  resulting  from  simple  spon- 
taneous decomposition  are  explained  in 
the  same  way.  A  small  mass  of  such  a 
substance  would  merely  decompose,  but  a 
large  mass,  since  the  heat  produced  inter- 


16 


nally  might  increase  considerably  while 
the  loss  of  heat  externally  might  not 
change  materially,  could  have  its  temper- 
ature raised  so  as  to  produce  explosion  in- 
stead of  simple  decomposition. 

THE  PROPAGATION  OF  THE  REACTIONS. 

The  explosive  reactions  in  a  homogene- 
ous gaseous  mixture,  surrounded  by  con- 
ditions of  pressure  and  temperature  iden- 
tical in  all  its  parts,  should,  apparently  de- 
velop instantaneously  in  all  parts  at  once. 
But,  as  a  matter  of  fact  a  certain  amount 
of  time  is  consumed  in  the  process,  and 
this  time  varies  in  different  bodies. 

Now,  in  the  ordinary  case  of  explosives, 
the  different  parts  of  which  are  exposed 
to  different  conditions,  such  as  those 
which  arise  from  being  ignited  at  one 
point  or  from  a  local  shock,  in  order  that 
the  transformation  may  be  propagated 
with  explosive  effect,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  same  physical  conditions  of  tempera- 
ture, of  pressure,  etc.  which  prevail  at  the 
initial  point,  should  successively  be  pro- 


17 

duced  and  propagated,  molecule  by  mole- 
cule, through  all  portions  of  the  mass. 

The  rapidity  of  combustion  of  explo- 
sives depends  to  a  great  extent  on  the 
pressure  of  the  air  or  the  surrounding 
gases.  Thus  the  velocity  of  the  combus- 
tion of  gunpowder  in  the  open  air  is  about 
10  to  13  mm.  a  second,  whereas  in  the 
bore  of  a  gun  it  is  about  230  mm.  a  sec- 
ond (Piobert).'  The  rapidity  of  progres- 
sive combustion  of  uncompressed  guncot- 
ton  is  about  eight  times  that  of  gunpowder 
(Piobert),  therefore  about  100  mm.  a  sec- 
ond, while  that  of  compressed  and  deto- 
nated guncotton  is  about  5000  m.  a  second 
(Dr.  Rudolf  Blochman). 

In  granulated  mixtures,  especially  low 
explosives,  the  size  of  the  grain  has  a 
great  effect  on  the  velocity  with  which 
the  reactions  are  propagated. 

Finally,  by  varying  the  process  used  for 
originating  the  reactions  any  effect  from 
quiet  decomposition  without  flame  to  per- 
fect detonation  may  be  produced,  even 
in  high  explosives. 


18 

Generally,  two  kinds  of  explosion  are 
distinguished : 

Explosions  of  the  first  order  or  detonation. 

Explosions  of  the  second  order,  or  ordinary 
explosion. 

All  explosions  are  brought  about  by 
heat,  synchronous  vibrations  or  vortex 
motion.  Heat  may  be  applied  directly  as 
heat,  or  indirectly  as  a  shock,  which  is 
converted  into  heat.  The  order  of  explo- 
sion if  due  to  shock,  depends  on  the  in- 
tensity of  the  original  shock,  therefore, 
detonators  consisting  of  small  quantities  of 
some  violent  explosive,  are  used  to  pro- 
duce explosions  of  the  first  order. 

In  case  of  detonation  by  shock  the  pres- 
sures resulting  from  the  shock  are  too  rap- 
id to  become  uniformly  dispersed  through- 
out the  entire  mass,  and  the  energy  is 
transformed  into  heat  in  the  first  layers 
of  the  explosive ;  these  layers  are  deton- 
ated and  the  resulting  gases  produce  a 
new  shock  on  the  next  layer,  raising  its 
temperature  and  detonating  it  in  the  same 
way,  and  so  on,  the  effect  being  thus  prop- 
agated with  great  rapidity  by  the  alternate 


19 

conversion  of  energy  into  heat  and  heat 
into  energy.  To  produce  detonation  the 
initial  velocity  of  decomposition  must  rise 
above  a  certain  minimum  value,  and  there 
is  therefore  a  critical  velocity  of  initial  de- 
composition which  determines  the  kind  of 
reaction  that  ultimately  takes  place  ;  and 
there  is  a  minimum  temperature  which 
some  part  of  the  explosive  must  reach  in 
order  to  have  detonation  by  heat  or  shock. 

In  detonation  by  influence  the  explosive 
either  takes  up  the  vibrations  of  the  deto- 
nator throughout  its  mass  and  thus  deto- 
nates itself,  or  the  vortex  motion  caused 
by  differences  in  the  surfaces  surrounding 
the  initial  explosion,  since  its  effects  are 
greater  in  certain  directions  than  in  others, 
will  detonate  the  explosive  if  it  be  in  one 
of  these  paths  of  greater  effect. 

Ordinary  explosion  results  as  follows: 
the  portion  of  the  substance  first  heated 
explodes,  the  gases  by  expansion  are 
cooled,  but  still  heat  a  small  portion  of  the 
explosive  to  the  temperature  of  explosion ; 
this  then  explodes,  cooling  again  takes 
place,  and  so  on. 


20 

The  sensitiveness  of  an  explosive  is  de- 
pendent on  the  individual  structure  of  the 
explosive,  on  the  conditions  of  heating, 
and  on  the  method  of  propagation  of  the 
reactions  j  it  is  greatest  for  the  same  sub- 
stance at  temperatures  nearest  to  that  at 
which  the  substance  begins  to  decompose 
spontaneously;  it  depends,  in  different 
substances,  on  the  cohesion  of  the  sub- 
stance which  governs  the  transformation 
of  the  shock  into  heat,  on  the  temperature 
of  decomposition,  and  on  the  quantity  of 
heat  set  free  by  the  decomposition. 

Thus,  mercury  fulminate  detonates  at  a 
higher  temperature  than  silver  oxalate 
and  at  a  lower  one  than  nitrogen  sulphide, 
yet  it  is  much  more  sensitive  to  shock  or 
friction  than  either  of  these  substances. 
Celluloid,  which  does  not  detonate  at  or- 
dinary temperatures,  acquires  that  prop- 
erty at  a  temperature  approaching  that  at 
which  it  decomposes.  The  temperature 
of  decomposition  is  lower  for  potassium 
chlorate  than  for  the  nitrate,  and  the 
former  is  the  more  sensitive. 


21 

THE  PRODUCTS  OF  EXPLOSION. 

Equations  representing  explosions  (lik$ 
all  other  chemical  reactions)  are  not  de- 
ductive, but  are  the  result  of  observation 
and  experiment. 

Nevertheless  there  are  certain  genera) 
principles  which  enable  us  to  write  out 
the  equation  that  represents  the  principal 
reaction  in  the  explosion,  when  we  know 
the  exact  chemical  composition  of  the 
components. 

In  the  explosion  of  compounds  contain- 
ing carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  nitro- 
gen, we  know  that  the  hydrogen  first 
takes  all  the  oxygen  it  requires  to  oxidize 
to  water  vapor.  If  there  be  any  excess 
of  hydrogen  it  will  combine  with  some  of 
the  carbon  and  form  marsh  gas ;  if  there 
be  an  excess  of  oxygen  (above  what  is 
required  by  the  hydrogen)  it  will  combine 
with  carbon  and  form  carbon  dioxide,  if 
there  be  enough  oxygen,  or  carbon  mon- 
oxide, if  there  be  no  more  oxygen  than  i& 
required  to  convert  the  carbon  to  this 
oxide,  or  both  these  oxides,  if  there  be  an 


22 

intermediate  quantity  o£  oxygen;  if  there 
l>e  an  excess  of  oxygen  above  that  required 
by  the  hydrogen,  but  below  that  required 
to  convert  all  the  carbon  into  carbon  mon- 
oxide, free  carbon  would  be  left,  but  this 
combines  with  nitrogen  to  form  cyanogen, 
or  with  hydrogen  to  form  marsh  gas;  if 
there  be  an  excess  of  oxygen  above  that 
required  to  oxydise  all  the  hydrogen  to 
water  vapor  and  all  the  carbon  to  carbon 
dioxide,  it  is  given  off  in  the  free  state; 
nitrogen  is  generally  given  off  in  the  free 
state,  but  if  there  be  an  excess  of  carbon 
it  may  appear  in  part  as  cyanogen. 

Of  course,  some  of  the  gaseous  pro- 
ducts undergo  dissociation  at  the  tempera- 
tures produced  by  the  explosions,  but  the 
fact  that  a  material  slowly  decomposed  at 
a  given  temperature  is  able  to  exist  for  a 
short  time  at  much  higher  temperatures, 
prevents  much  dissociation  from  taking 
place.  The  abruptness  of  cooling  imme- 
diately after  explosion  preserves  these 
compounds  from  destruction,  because  it 
brings  them  to  temperatures  at  which 
they  are  stable. 


23 

These  principles  are  the  basis  of  the 
preparation  of  certain  of  the  explosive 
mixtures.  Compounds  which  have  a  defi- 
ciency of  oxygen  are  made  more  energetic 
in  their  explosive  action  by  mixing  them 
with  some  oxidizing  agent;  and  com- 
pounds with  an  excess  of  oxygen  can  be 
advantageously  mixed  with  those  having 
a  deficiency,  or  with  some  oxidizable  sub- 
stance. 

The  total  quantity  of  heat  given  out  in 
any  chemical  reaction  is  fixed,  no  matter 
what  its  rate,  but  the  temperature  to 
which  the  products  are  raised  depends, 
among  other  things,  on  the  specific  heat 
of  these  products,  hence,  explosives  whose 
products  have  a  low  specific  heat  have  an 
advantage  over  those  with  a  high  one ; 
and  since  dissocation  tends  to  lower  the 
temperature,  the  more  permanent  the 
gases  in  the  products  the  better. 


THE  FORCE  OF  EXPLOSION. 

The  force  of  explosion  may  be  measured 


either  by  the  pressure  of  the  gases  given 
off,  or  by  the  work  done. 

The  pressure  of  the  gases  depends  upon 
their  nature,  their  volume  and  their  tem- 
perature. 

The  work  done  depends  upon  the  quan- 
tity of  heat  given  off.  The  maximum  work 
which  an  explosive  is  capable  of  doing,  or 
its  potential  energy,  is  determined  by  multi- 
plying the  number  of  units  of  heat  given 
off  by  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  a  unit 
of  heat ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that 
it  is  a  limit  which  is  never  reached  in 
practice,  because  there  is  always  loss  of 
Jieat  as  such,  by  conduction,  radiation, 
•etc.,  moreover,  part  of  the  work  done  is 
not  useful  work  and  is  therefore  lost. 
Pinally,  much  of  the  heat  remains  stored 
Tip  in  the  gases  that  escape. 

To  fully  define  the  force  of  an  explo- 
sion, however,  after  we  consider  both  the 
pressures  of  the  gases  evolved  and  the 
i\rork  which  the  heat  given  off  is  capable 
of  doing,  the  following  data  are  necessary ; 
1.  The  chemical  composition  of  the  ex- 
plosive. 


25 

2.  The   chemical   composition   of    the 
products  of  explosion  at  every  step 
(including  dissociation). 

3.  The  quantity  of  heat  given  off  dur- 
ing the  reaction. 

4.  The  volume   of  the   gases   formed 
(measured  under  normal  pressure). 

5.  The  rapidity  with  which  the  reac- 
tion takes  place,  comprising  both  the 
rapidity  of  the  changes  at  the  origin 
of  the  reactions,  and  the  rapidity  of 
propagation  of  the  reactions  (includ- 
ing explosion  by  influence). 

Of  course,  if  the  chemical  reactions  are 
positively  known  the  third  and  fourth 
may  be  deduced  from  the  first  and  second. 

The  various  kinds  of  explosives,  based 
on  the  force  of  their  explosion,  are  used 
for  different  purposes. 

Strong  and  very  rapid  explosives. — Strong 
and  very  rapid  explosives  are  used  when 
it  is  desired  to  obtain  principally  breaking 
effects.  In  their  case  the  elasticity  of  the 
mass  acted  upon  has  not  time  to  come 
into  play  and  the  material  is  broken  into 
small  fragments.  In  their  employment  in 


26 

mining  it  is  not  necessary  to  tamp  much 
because  the  pressure  is  communicated  to 
the  solid  rock  before  the  gases  formed 
have  time  to  drive  away  the  compressed 
air. 

Fulminate  of  mercury  and  the  stronger 
dynamites  are  the  types  of  the  strong  and 
very  rapid  explosives. 

Strong  and  less  rapid  explosives. — If  the 
decomposition  of  strong  and  very  rapid 
explosives  be  retarded  a  little,  the  poten- 
tial energy  still  remaining  considerable, 
there  will  be  a  tendency  to  produce  a  tear- 
ing or  shearing  in  the  lines  of  least  resist- 
ance, and  when  the  tenacity  is  not  great 
the  result  is  dislocation  without  projection. 
These  explosives  are  used  in  quarrying 
large  blocks  of  rocks  of  great  resistance. 

The  weaker  dynamites  are  the  types  of 
this  class,  but  the  stronger  can  also  be 
used  in  case  the  block  is  outlined  by  a 
furrow  with  a  central  drill-hole,  or  by 
making  the  effect  of  successive  small  ex- 
plosions in  the  same  chamber  cumulative. 

Strong  and  slow  explosives. — Strong  and 
slow  explosives  'are  used  when  it  is  de- 


27 

sired  to  break  the  material  into  as  large 
pieces  as  possible,  as  in  mining  coal,  or 
merely  into  a  comparatively  small  number 
of  pieces,  as  in  the  bursting  of  shell.  The 
gradual  increase  of  pressure  is  of  advan- 
tage for  some  purposes,  as  in  the  displace- 
ment of  earth. 

Ordinary  gunpowder  is  the  type  of  the 
strong  and  slow  powders,  but  the  modern 
mixtures  containing  high  explosives  are  so 
varied  in  their  qualities  that  all  shades  of 
effect  can  now  be  produced  by  them. 

The  order  of  the  explosives  according 
to  their  respective  strengths,  or  forces  of 
explosion,  varies  considerably  according  to 
the  instrument  used  in  measuring  them, 
or  the  method  employed,  so  that  any  order 
must  be  regarded  in  a  general  sense,  and 
not  as  in  any  way  absolutely  accurate. 

The  following  table  condensed  from  a 
more  complete  one  in  Lieutenant  Walke's 
Lectures  on  Explosives,  gives  the  order  of 
the  principal  explosives  according-  to  the 
force  of  explosion,  as  determined  by  thp 
Quinan  pressure-gauge : 


Explosive  gelatine    -  106.17 

Helehoffite  -  -     106.17 

Nitroglycerine  -  100.00 

Guncotton  (U.S.N.  Torpedo  Station)  83.12 
Dynamite,  No.  1       -  -  81.31 

Emmensite  -  -       77.86 

Tonite      -  -  68.24 

Bellite  -       65.70 

Atlas  Powder  -  -  64.43 

Rackarock  -  -        61.71 

Melinite  -  -  50.82 

Mercury  fulminate       -  -        49.91 

Mortar  Powder  (Dupont)  -  28.13 

Professor  Mendel6ef  proposes,  as  the 
most  reliable  way  of  comparing  the  ballis- 
tic efficiencies  of  powders,  the  simple  con- 
sideration of  the  volumes  of  evolved  gases, 
without  regard  to  conditions  of  tempera- 
ture. 

Thus,  if  the  explosion  of  brown  powder 
be  represented  by : 

4  K  NO,  +  C6  H4  0  +  S  =  K,  S04  (solid) 
+  K,  CO,  (solid)  +  4  CO  +  2  H,  0  +  2  Nt. 

Mol.  wt.  =  4  x  101  +  80  +  32  =  516. 

Vols.  of  gases  =4x2  +  2x2 
X  2  =  16. 


We  have,  516  :  16  ::  1000  :  V10CO  =  31.0. 
That  is,  a  thousand  parts  by  weight  of  the 
explosive  furnish  31  volumes  of  gas  (meas- 
ured at  a  fixed  temperature  and  pressure). 

For  pyrocollodion,  V1000  =  81.5. 
Hence,  the  relative  energies  of  brown 
powder  and  pyrocollodion  for  equal 
weights  are  as  81.5  :  31.0,  which  is  very 
nearly  what  actual  experiments  show,  viz.: 
2.6:1. 

Admitting  the  effect  of  temperature,  he 
holds  that  our  methods  of  determining  the 
temperatures  developed  by  explosives  are 
unreliable,  and  our  assumptions  in  regard 
to  the  specific  heats  of  gases  at  high  tem- 
peratures may  be  wrong,  hence,  the  vol- 
umes of  gases  are  our  only  safe  means  of 
comparison. 

THE  SPRENGEL  CLASS  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 

The  Sprengel  safety  mixtures  are  based 
on  the  principle  of  keeping  separate,  for 
safety  in  handling,  transportation  and  stor- 
age, the  essential  constituents  of  an  ex- 
plosive mixture  (an  oxidizable  substance 


30 


and  an  oxidizing  agent),  and  mixing  them 
only  when  required  for  use. 

The  separate  constituents  are,  of  course, 
not  explosive,  and  can  be  manipulated 
with  safety.  The  mixing  of  those  which 
have  received  practical  approval  can  also 
be  effected  with  safety,  but  it  is  difficult 
to  secure  uniformity  in  the  resulting  ex- 
plosive without  special  mixing  apparatus 
worked  by  skilled  workmen. 

These  explosives  are  all  powerful,  and 
most  of  them  are  very  stable,  requiring 
strong  detonators  to  explode  them  per- 
fectly. They  possess  another  advantage 
in  that  the  power  may  be  varied  con- 
siderably by  simply  varying  the  propor- 
tions of  the  ingredients  in  mixing  before 
use.  The  principal  disadvantages  are  that 
they  require  workmen  of  more  than  ordin- 
ary intelligence,  that  in  mine  galleries  and 
other  confined  localities  it  is  inconvenient 
and  dangerous  to  mix  those  containing 
essentially  nitric  acid  or  carbon  bisulphide, 
and  finally,  that  it  is  necessary  to  protect 
the  copper  capsule  containing  the  detona- 
tor from  the  action  of  the  nitric  acid  in 


31 

those  which  contain  this  acid  as  an  essen- 
tial ingredient. 

The  principle  explosives  of  this  class 
are: 

Rack-a-Rock, 

Hellhoffite, 

Oxonite, 

Panclastite,  and 

Romite. 

SMOKELESS  POWDERS. 

The  principle  involved  in  the  preparation 
of  smokeless  powder  is  the  production  of  an 
explosive  which  shall  have  in  its  products 
of  explosion  no  gases  readily  condensible 
into  liquids  or  solids,  and  at  the  same  time 
give  moderate  pressures. 

The  demand  for  the  smokeless  powders 
was  created  by  the  modern  magazine  small- 
arms  and  the  rapid-fire  and  machine  gunsr 
because  the  accumulation  of  smoke  with 
the  old  powders  soon  put  a  limit  to  the  use 
of  these  powerful  engines.  But  these  new 
powders  are  rapidly  finding  application 
not  only  in  military  arms  but  also  in  sport- 


62 

ing  rifles  and  elsewhere,  and  are  fast 
Superseding  the  old  ones. 

The  only  class  of  smokeless  powders 
that  has  proven  practically  useful  and  re- 
liable is  that  derived  from  guncotton  or 
its  modifications  (with  or  without  nitro- 
glycerine). 

In  stability  and  ballistic  properties  these 
powders  are  generally  superior  to  the  old 
powders.  They  are  more  difficult  to  ignite 
than  black  powder  and  require  stronger 
caps  j  they  are  unaffected  by  water  or  air ; 
they  are  not  sensitive  to  shock  and  leave 
no  residue  when  burned  j  and  they  give 
high  velocities  with  comparatively  low 
pressures,  and  great  uniformity  of  action. 

The  force  of  these  powders  is  explained 
by  the  fact  that  the  potential  energy  is 
high,  since  the  quantity  of  heat  evolved  is 
large,  and  that  the  total  volume  of  gas 
given  off  is  very  great.  The  low  pres- 
sures, on  the  other  hand,  are  explained  by 
the  fact  that  the  rapidity  of  reaction  in 
these  mixtures  has  been  greatly  decreased 
below  that  of  the  high  explosives  entering 
into  their  composition,  by  the  admixed  de- 


33 

torrents,  and  by  the  physical  form  given 
them  in  practice,  so  that  the  gases  are 
given  off  comparatively  slowly ;  moreover, 
the  gases  can  expand  into  the  entire  space 
behind  the  projectile,  whereas  in  gunpow- 
der over  halfilDLQ  space  is  occupied  at  the 
moment  of  ^explosion  by  solid  gunpowder, 
and  less  than  half  is  therefore  available  for 
the  gases  to  expand  into ;  while  the  high 
velocities  given  to  the  projectile,  with 
such  low  pressures  (which,  as  measured, 
are  not  the  average  pressures  while  the 
projectile  is  in  the  bore,  but  the  maximum 
pressures  reached)  are  explained  by  the 
fact  that,  although  the  initial  pressure  is 
less,  the  total  force  exerted  on  the  pro- 
jectile while  it  is  in  the  bore,  due  to  the 
great  volume  of  gas  and  the  high  poten- 
tial energy,  is  greater ;  moreover,  in  these 
smokeless  powders  none  of  the  force  is 
wasted  in  throwing  out  the  unconsumed 
powder,  as  it  is  in  the  case  of  black,  or 
even  brown,  gunpowder.  Finally,  it  is 
probable  that  dissociation  (the  effect  of 
which  is  explained  under  Brown  Powder) 
comes  into  play.  The  low  pressures  also 


34 

account  for  the  fact  that  these  powders, 
although  they  contain  high  explosive  con- 
stituents, do  not  detonate. 

They  are,  in  reality,  strong  and  slow 
powders,  but  in  a  special  sense :  strong, 
as  compared  with  gunpowder  (not  so 
strong  as  guncotton  or  dynamite),  and 
slow,  as  compared  with  the  high  explo- 
sives (but  more  rapid  in  reality  than  gun- 
powder), with  the  effect  of  being  less  rapid 
•even  than  gunpowder,  on  account  of  the 
entire  space  behind  the  projectile  being 
available  for  the  gases  to  expand  into. 

In  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  general 
subject  of  smokeless  powders,  the  Russian 
chemist,  Professor  Mendel6ef,  arrived  at 
the  following  conclusions  in  regard  to  the 
kind  of  substances  that  promise  to  be 
used  in  future  in  the  manufacture  of  these 
powders. 

The  conditions  to  be  fulfilled  by  smoke- 
less powders  are : 

1.  That  they  shall  leave  no  solid  resi- 
due after  combustion,  and  that  their  gases 
exercise  no  injurious  effect  upon  the  metal 
of  the  gun. 


2.  That  they  undergo  no  change  upon 
keeping  for  long  periods  of  time,  and  con- 
tain no  volatile  ingredients. 

3.  That  they  may  be  readily  prepared 
in    quantities    sufficiently    abundant    for 
practical  needs. 

The  first  condition  limits  the  substances 
suitable  for  conversion  into  powder,  to 
compounds  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen  with 
oxygen  and  carbon.  But  in  any  powder 
the  energy  is  derived  from  the  conversion 
of  the  mass  into  gases,  the  transformation 
being  accompanied  by  great  heat.  The 
greatest  volume  of  gas  (measured  at  a 
fixed  temperature  and  pressure)  would  be 
obtainable  from  Hin  in  the  solid  or  liquid 
form  (provided  such  a  substance  existed), 
for  we  should  then  have : 

Htn  =  wH,,  orVl000  =  1000, 

but  no  such  substance  is  known,  or  ex- 
pected. 

The  binary  compounds,  while  giving 
larger  volumes  of  gas  (V1000  =  133.3,  93.0T 
etc.,)  than  any  others,  do  not  fulfill  the 
third  condition,  but  even  if  they  did,  such 


36 

compounds  do  not  decompose  gradually 
enough  to  be  used  in  guns.  The  neces- 
sary progressive  combustion  can  take 
place  only  in  explosives  containing  carbon 
and  hydrogen,  which  are  consumed  by  the 
oxygen  that  is  held  in  close  proximity  to 
them,  but  which  is  not  directly  combined 
with  them. 

I—COMPOUNDS. 

.  Explosive  compounds  may    be    divided 
into  five  groups : 

1.  Nitrides. 

2.  Azo-Compounds. 

3.  Fulminates. 

4.  Nitro-Compounds. 

5.  Organic  Nitrates. 

There  are  a  few  compounds  not  included 
in  this  classification,  but  they  are  of  little 
importance  practically,  and  add  nothing  to 
our  understanding  of  the  theory  of  ex- 
plosives. 

The  explosive  character  of  all  these 
compounds  is  due  to  three  great  causes : 
first,  they  are  comparatively  unstable  com- 


3? 

pounds,  all  of  them  containing  nitrogen, 
the  most  indifferent  of  all  the  elements  so 
far  as  chemical  affinity  is  concerned,  and 
therefore  their  molecules  are  readily  broken 
up;  secondly,  the  atoms  in  the  molecule 
are  not  combined  according  to  their  great- 
est affinities,  hence,  little  heat  is  absorbed 
in  decomposing  the  molecules,  while  great 
heat  is  given  out  in  the  re-combination  of 
the  atoms  according  to  their  higher  affini- 
ties, and  the  resultant  heat,  which  is  the 
algebraic  sum  of  the  two,  is  therefore  very 
great;  and  thirdly,  the  products  are  all 
gases  at  the  temperature  produced  by  the 
explosion,  and  most  of  them  permanent 
gases.  Hence,  all  the  conditions  for  ex- 
plosive action  are  present  and  in  a  high 
degree,  viz.:  change  of  state  from  solid  or 
liquid  to  gas,  rapid  chemical  change,  evolu- 
tion of  great  heat,  and  the  production  of  a 
large  volume  of  gas;  in  other  words,  a  small 
volume  of  the  explosive  can  suddenly  pro- 
duce a  very  large  volume  of  gas. 

I. — NITRIDES. 
This   group   comprises  the  simplest  of 


38 

the  explosive  compounds.  Some  may  be 
regarded  as  formed  theoretically  from 
ammonia,  N  H3 ,  by  replacing  all  ( or  part ) 
of  the  hydrogen  by  another  (metallic) 
element,  others  from  hydrazoic  acid,  H  N3, 
by  replacing  the  hydrogen  by  a  metallic 
element,  and  are  therefore  all  nitrides  (or 
hydro-nitrides): 

CZgN(orNtHCZ8).  S  N.        H  N3. 

Br3N.  A?.N.     (NH4)Nt. 

I8N.  C«/6Nt.   A#N8. 

F3N.  H<76N,. 

Nitrogen  Chloride. — Nitrogen  chloride,  or 
Chloramide,  is  formed  by  passing  chlorine 
gas  into  a  warm  solution  of  sal-ammoniac. 
It  is  a  heavy  oily  liquid.  When  heated  to 
93°  C.  it  explodes  violently,  and  its  ex- 
plosion is  also  caused  by  contact  of 
substances  which  have  an  affinity  for 
chlorine,  such  as  phosphorus,  arsenic,  oils, 
turpentine  and  alkalies. 

Its  exact  chemical  symbol  has  not  been 
determined,  but  it  is  usually  regarded  as 
N  C  £3.  Its  structural  formula  will  there- 


fore  be  C  I  —  N  —  C  I  and  its  explosion  may 

Gl 

be  represented  by  the  equation 

2NC/3  =  N,  +  3C7,,or  f  Gl  -  Cl 
Cl  —  N  —  CZ  =  N  =  N  +  ICl  —  Gl 
I  '  (Cl  —  Gl 

Gl 

V,.00  =  37.56; 

the  evolution  of  heat  in  this  case  is  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  the  heat  required 
to  decompose  the  explosive  molecule 
(which  involves  only  the  overcoming  the 
affinity  of  nitrogen  for  chlorine,  as  seen 
in  the  structural  formula),  is  very  small, 
while  that  evolved  in  the  union  of  the 
nitrogen  atoms  to  form  the  nitrogen 
molecule,  and  of  the  chlorine  atoms  to 
form  the  chlorine  molecule,  is  very  great, 
the  resultant  effect  being  the  evolution  of 
a  large  quantity  of  heat. 

Nitrogen  Iodide. — Nitrogen  iodide,  or 
iodoamide,  N  I8,  may  be  made  by  gently 
triturating  in  a  porcelain  mortar  finely 
divided  iodine  with  a  large  excess  of 


4:0 

concentrated  amonia  water  at  0°  C.  It  is 
a  brownish-black  powder,  which  may  be 
exploded  when  dry  by  the  touch  of  a 
feather,  and  under  water  by  friction. 

Nitrogen  Bromide. — Nitrogen  bromide, 
or  Bromamide,  may  be  formed  by  decom- 
posing nitrogen  chloride  with  an  aqueous 
solution  of  potassium  bromide.  It  is  a 
dense,  blackish-red,  volatile  oil,  which 
may  be  exploded  violently  by  contact 
with  phosphorus  or  arsenic,  which  have  a 
great  affinity  for  bromine. 

Nitrogen  Fluoride. — Nitrogen  floride,  or 
Fluoramide,  may  be  formed  by  passing 
an  electric  current  through  a  concentrated 
solution  of  ammonium  fluoride.  It  is  an 
oily  liquid,  which  may  be  exploded  by 
contact  with  glass,  silica,  or  organic 
matter  (due  to  the  affinity  of  fluorine  for 
silicon  or  hydrogen). 

Nitrogen  Sulphide. — Nitrogen  sulphide,  or 
Sulphur  nitride,  N  S,  may  be  prepared  by 
passing  dry  ammonia  gas  through  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphur  dichloride  in  ten  or  twelve 
times  its  volume  of  carbon  bisulphide, 
filtering  off  the  yellow  liquid,  allowing  it  to 


41 

crystallize  by  spontaneous  evaporation,  and 
dissolving  out  the  admixed  sulphur  by  car- 
bon bisulphide.  It  is  a  golden  yellow, 
crystaline  solid,  which  can  be  exploded  by 
percussion. 

Silver  Amine. — Silver  amine,  or  Silver 
nitride,  Ag3  N,  may  be  prepared  by  acting 
on  silver  oxide  with  ammonia.  It  is  a 
black  powder,  which  is  exploded  by  the 
slightest  shock. 

Copper  Amine. — Copper  amine,  C  u9  N$f 
is  formed  by  passing  dry  ammonia  gas 
over  finely  powdered  cupric  oxide  heated 
to  250°  C.  It  is  a  dark  green  powder,  ex- 
ploding at  310°  C. 

Mercury  Amine. — Mercury  amine,  Hg9 
Ns,  may  be  prepared  by  passing  dry  am- 
monia gas  over  dry  mercuric  oxide,  and 
then  heating  the  resulting  mass  cautiously 
at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  150°  C. 
It  explodes  by  heat  or  percussion. 

Nitrohydric  Acid. — Nitrohydric  acid,  or 
hydrazoic  acid,  N3  H,  is  very  explosive  it- 
self and  forms  highly  explosive  salts.  It 
furnishes  a  remarkably  great  volume  of 


gas:  2  Ns  H  =  H2  +  3  Nt,  so  that  V1000  = 
93.0. 

Ammonium  Hydrazoate. — Ammonium  hy- 
drazoate,  N8  (NH4),  is  the  ammonium 
salt  of  hydrazoic  acid,  and  is  also  explosive-: 
N8  (NH4)  =  2H,  +  2Na,  giving  V1000  = 
133.3. 

Silver  Hydraeoate. — Silver    Hydrazoate, 
N^ 
I      N 
N8  A#,  or  Ag  —  N  /   ,  is  the  silver  salt, 

and  has  been  proposed  as  a  substitute  for 
mercury  fulminate. 

None  of  these  compounds  have  as  yet 
received  any  important  practical  applica- 
tion, although  silver  amine  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  initial  detonating  agent  in 
the  bomb  that  killed  the  Czar,  and  nitrogen 
sulphide  could  be  used  as  a  substitute  for 
mercury  fulminate;  but  they  are  interest- 
ing in  connection  with  the  theory  of  ex- 
plosives. 

2. — Azo-COMPOUNDS. 

The  azo-compounds  are  derived  theoret- 
cally  from  the  benzene  series  by  substitu- 


43 


tion  of  2  atoms  of  nitrogen  for  two  atoms. 
of  hydrogen.  Practically,  they  are  pre- 
pared by  the  action  of  reducing  agents  on. 
the  nitro-derivatives  of  the  benzene  series, 
or  by  the  oxidation  of  aniline  (prepared 
from  nitro-benzene). 

Thus^azo-benzene,  C12H10Na,  is  formed 
by  the  action  of  sodium-amalgam  on  nitro- 
benzene. Its  structural  formula  is  : 


'H c  C  — H  H—  (J  ^C — BE 

I      II      I 

,C— H   H-C  ^,C_H 


P.  Griess,  the  great  German  investiga- 
tor of  the  azo-compounds,  isolated  a  num- 
ber of  explosive  salts  of  this  class,  most  of 
which  are  crystalline.  They  are  interest- 
ing in  the  theoretical  study  of  explosive 
compounds,  and  may  find  some  practical 


application  in  the  fniuee.-(Berichte  Deutsche 
Chem.  GeseU.} 

The  more  important  are  : 

Paraditriazobenzene, 


Metaditriazobenzoic  acid,  C7  H5  (N8)a  02. 

Metamidotriazobenzoic  acid,  C6  Hg?  COOH, 
NH,,N,NC.H,,  (NHJ, 

Meta-amidodiazobenzoUmide,  a  yellow  oil, 
C6H6N4,or 


C6 


.N 

'X 


Para-amidodiazobenzoic  acid,  C7  H5  N8  Oa. 
Triazo-A  zobenzene, 


\N 


3. — FULMINATES. 

The  fulminates  are  intermediate  in  com- 
position  between  the  binary  nitrogen  com- 
pounds and  the  nitrous  derivatives  of  the 
benzene  group.  They  contain  some  oxygen, 
but  only  enough  to  convert  the  carbon  into 
carbon  monoxide.  They  are  generally  re- 
garded as  salts  of  fulmmic  acid,  C2  N2  O2  H2. 

Their  explosive  action  is  explained  by 
the  fact  that  in  the  molecule  the  atoms  of 
the  elements  are  united  in  a  manner  which 
is  not  according  to  their  highest  affinities^ 
and  in  the  resultant  gases  they  are  so 
united.  The  structural  formula  is  probably 
this: 

N  =  C  —  O  —  M' 

N  =  C  —  O  —  M' 

in  which  part  of  the  affinity  of  carbon  i& 
satisfied  by  that  of  other  carbon,  and  an- 
other part  by  that  of  nitrogen,  only  one- 
fourth  of  its  maximum  affinity  being  satis- 
fied by  oxygen,  whereas  in  the  result, 

M',  C,  N,  08  =  M',  +  2  C  O  +  N8> 


46 

one-half  the  maximum  affinity  of  carbon 
is  satisfied  by  oxygen. 

Mercury  Fulminate. — Mercury  fulminate, 
Jig  C2  Nt  O2,  is  manufactured  by  dissolving 
in  a  carboy  one  part  of  mercury  in  one 
part  of  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.4.),  the  liquid, 
containing  nitrous  acid  and  solution  of 
mercuric  nitrate  being  then  poured  into 
another  carboy  containing  ten  parts  of 
alcohol  (sp.  gr.  0.83.),  connected  through 
a  series  of  Wolff's  bottles  placed  in  a 
trough  of  water,  with  a  condensing  tower. 
The  condensed  vapors  are  used  again  in- 
stead of  pure  alcohol. 

The  fulminate  is  washed  and  dried  till 
it  contains  about  fifteen  per  cent,  of  moist- 
ure, and  is  then  stored  under  water,  OP 
packed  in  papier  mache  boxes  containing 
about  8  grammes  each. 

It  is  a  white  or  grayish  crystalline  sub- 
stance, which  explodes  violently  when 
struck,  or  when  heated  to  195°  C.  Its 
principal  practical  application  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  cap  composition  and 
detonators. 

Silver  Fulminate. — Silver  Fulminate,  Ag% 


47 

C,  N,  O,,  may  be  made  by  a  process  similar 
to  that  for  making  the  mercury  salt.  It 
explodes  much  more  violently  than  the 
latter,  and  when  dry  the  slightest  touch 
will  set  it  off.  It  is  used  in  minute  quanti- 
ties in  detonating  toys. 

The  other  fulminates  have  received  no 
practical  application,  although  they  are  all 
explosive.  The  following  are  known  to 
chemistry : 

Gold  Fulminate. 
Platinum  Fulminate. 
Zinc  Fulminate. 
Copper  Fulminate. 
Silver-Ammonium  Fulminate. 
Silver-Potassium  Fulminate. 

4. — NlTRO-COMPOUNDS. 

The  most  important  of  the  explosive 
compounds  are  formed  by  the  action  of 
nitric  acid  on  organic  substances  containing 
carbon  and  hydrogen,  or  carbon,  hydrogen 
and  oxygen,  and  belong  to  the  fourth  and 
fifth  groups. 


48 


The  nitro-compounds  or  nitro-substitu- 
tion  compounds,  may  be  represented  by 
the  general  symbol 

R  — N02, 

in  which  R  is  an  organic  radical;  and  they 
are  derived  from  hydrocarbon  compounds, 
or  compounds  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  by  the  substitution  of  the  acid 
radical,  N  Og,  for  the  hydrogen  of  the  or- 
ganic compound,  the  N  O2  replacing,  not 
the  hydrogen  of  hydroxyl  as  required  in 
forming  oxysalts,  but  the  hydrogen  con- 
nected directly  to  carbon  atoms,  that  could 
in  a  similar  way  be  replaced  by  chlorine, 
bromine,  etc.  Again,  if  we  regard  the 
result  as  produced  by  substitution  in  the 
acid  symbol,  then  the  organic  radical  re- 
places, not  the  hydrogen  of  the  acid,  as  in 
true  oxysalts,  but  the  hydroxyl.  Conse- 
quently, these  compounds  are  not  salts, 
but  true  substitution  products. 

They  are  generally  more  stable  com- 
pounds and  less  energetic  in  their  action 
than  the  organic  nitrates,  facts  which  may 
.be  explained  by  the  position  of  the  nitryl 


49 

molecule,  N  Os,  determining  as  it  does  the 
heat  of  formation  (which  is  a  measure  of  the 
stability)  and  the  distance  the  atoms  have 
to  travel  in  recombining  in  explosion  (a 
measure  of  the  intensity  of  action  in  ex- 
plosion). One  of  the  greatest  affinities  ni- 
trogen shows  is  for  carbon,  as  exemplified 
in  cyanogen,  and  in  the  molecules  of  the 
compounds  included  in  this  group  (since 
the  nitryl  molecule  is  united  directly  to  a 
carbon  atom)  this  strongest  affinity  is  par- 
tially satisfied,  a  fact  which  assists  in  ac- 
counting for  the  comparitive  stability  of 
these  substances. 

A. 

Derivatives  of  the  Benzene  (or  Aromatic)  Series. 

The  compounds  in  this  section  are  formed 
by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  the  benzene 
series  of  hydrocarbons  (or  on  derivatives 
of  that  series),  resulting  in  the  replace- 
ment of  one  or  more  hydrogen  atoms  by 
molecules  of  the  radical  nitryl,  N  O2. 

The  benzene  series  comprises  the  hy- 
drocarbons of  the  general  symbol  Cn  H2n_8 
in  which  n  is  at  least  6.  The  lowest  mem- 


50 

ber  of  the  series  is  C6  He,  from  which  the 
others  are  derived  by  replacing  the  hydro- 
gen atoms  by  C  H2 . 

The  structural  formula   for  benzine  is: 


H- 


and  if  one  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  be 
replaced  by  C  H8  we  have  toluene,  C7  H8 ; 
but  when  more  than  one  atom  of  hydro- 
gen is  replaced,  the  product,  although  its 
chemical  symbol  remains  the  same,  differs 
according  to  the  position  of  the  hydrogen 
atoms  replaced,  two  adjacent  ones  forming 
the  ortho  compounds,  two  alternate  ones  the 
meta  compounds,  and  two  opposite  ones  the 
para  compounds ;  such  compounds,  having 
the  same  chemical  formula  but  different 
structural  formulas  are  called  isomeric 


51 

compounds.  The  position  of  the  atom  or 
atoms  replaced  affects  the  stability  of  the 
compound  produced,  the  symmetrical  be- 
ing the  more  stable.  This  principle  ap- 
plies in  a  number  of  organic  compounds. 

This  section  of  explosive  compounds 
may  be  divided  into  two  sub-sections  : 

Derivates  of  Benzene. 

Derivates  of  Toluene. 

d.      Derivatives  of  Benzene. 
The  members  of  this  sub-section  are : 
The  Nitrobenzenes. 
The  Picrates. 

The  Nitrobenzenes. 

The  nitrobenzenes  are  obtained  by  the 
nitration  of  benzene,  C6  H8.  Three  de- 
grees of  nitration  have  thus  far  been  ef- 
fected, resulting  in  the  replacement  of 
one,  two  or  three  atoms  of  hydrogen  by  a 
corresponding  number  of  nitryl  molecules. 

Mono-nitrobenzene.  —  Mono-nitrobenzene, 
C6  H5,  N  O2,  is  prepared  by  gradually  add- 
ing 1  part  of  pure  benzene  to  a  mixture 
of  1.2  parts  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.4)  and  1.8 


parts  sulphuric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.84),  cooling 
by  means  of  a  current  of  water  5  the  acids 
are  then  removed  by  means  of  a  siphon, 
and  the  product  is  washed. 

The  reaction  is  thus  represented  : 

C6  H.  +  H  N  03  =  C,  H6  (NO,)  +  H2 

O,  and  the  structural  formula  of  the  com- 
pound is  : 


H — C  C — H 


H_C  C_H 

^^ 


i 


Mono-nitrobenzene  is  a  colorless  or  red- 
dish-orange oily  liquid,  capable  of  dissolv- 
ing nitrocellulose  in  the  cold.  If  thrown 
upon  an  iron  plate  at  a  red  heat  it  deto- 
nates, but  under  ordinary  circumstances 
it  is  not  an  explosive. 

The  formula  shows  that  there   is   not 


53 

enough  oxygen  present  in  tlia  molecule  to 
oxidize  even  the  hydrogen,  and  there  is 
a  large  excess  of  carbon,  hence  there  can- 
not be  explosion.  On  the  red  hot  iron 
plate,  on  the  contrary,  this  excess  of  carbon 
is  taken  up,  forming  iron  carbide  on  the 
surface  and  liberating  gases  : 

2  C6  H5  (N  O2)  +  44  F  e  =  11  Fe4  C  + 
4  H2  O  +  N2  +  C  H2. 

It  is  used  as  an  ingredient  of  explosive 
mixtures,  however,  either  as  an  essential 
constituent  or  as  a  deterrent,  to  retard  or 
prevent  explosion. 

Di-nitrobenzene. — Di-nitrobenzene,  C6  H4 
(N  Oa)2,  is  prepared  by  mixing  0.8  parts 
nitric  acid  (sp.  pr.  1.5)  and  1.2  parts  sul- 
phuric acid  (sp.  gr.  1.845),  and  while  the 
mixture  is  still  hot  adding  1  part  mono- 
nitrobenzene.  The  result  is  generally  a 
mixture  of  the  three  isomeric  compounds, 
ortho-,  meta-,  and  para-di-nitrobenzene. 
It  is  a  hard,  crystalline  yellow  solid,  not 
in  itself  explosive,  but  forming  strong 
explosive  mixtures  with  substances  rich 
in  oxygen  and  giving  it  up  readily. 


54 

Tri-nitrobenzene.  —  Tri-nitrobenzene,  C6 
H3  (N  O2)8,  may  be  prepared  by  treating 
meta-di-nitrobenzene  with  a  mixture  of 
concentrated  nitric  and  Nordhause,n  sul- 
phuric acids.  It  has  been  proposed  as  a 
substitute  for  picric  acid  in  explosive 
mixtures. 

The  Picrates. 

The  picrates  are  obtained  by  the 
nitration  of  carbolic  acid,  or  phenol, 
C6  H6  O,  which  is  a  derivative  of  benzene 
(one  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  in  the  latter 
being  replaced  by  hydroxyl). 

The  structural  formula  of  carbolic  acid 
is: 

H 

O 
I 

II  I 

H—  C  C  — H 


55 
and  that  of  the  picrates : 


H  (or  M) 

O 
I  O 


0=N —  c  C  — N=aO 

H —  C  C  — H 

O=  N  =O 

The  nitryl  ( N  02 )  molecules  are  attached 
directly  to  the  carbon  atoms,  as  in  the 
other  true  nitro-compounds. 

Picric  Acid. — Picric  acid,  or  tri-nitro- 
phenol,  C6  H3  (N  O2)3  O  ,  is  manufactured 
by  melting  carbolic  acid,  mixing  with 
strong  nitric  acid,  diluting  with  water, 
and  cooling;  the  picric  acid  crystallizes 
out  and  is  purified.  The  reactions  are 
somewhat  complicated,  but  the  nitric  acid 
has  its  usual  action  ia  such  cases,  viz. :  the 
substitution  of  3  molecules  of  N  O3  for  3 
atoms  of  hydrogen : 


56 


H.O. 

It  is  a  yellow  crystilline  solid,  and  in  the 
dry  state  may  be  detonated  by  means  of  a 
fulminate  detonator,  or  by  detonating  a 
small  quantity  of  picric  acid  near  it,  while 
the  wet  picric  acid  may  be  detonated  by 
a  primer  of  the  dry  acid;  moreover,  a  thin 
layer  of  it  may  be  exploded  by  percussion^ 
the  energy  required  diminishing  as  the 
temperature  of  the  explosive  is  raised. 

Its  explosion  may  be  thus  represented: 
4  C6  H3  (  N  02  )8  O  =  6  H2  O  +  22  C  O  + 


The  supply  of  oxygen  is  sufficient  only 
for  the  partial  oxidation  of  the  carbon, 
hence  the  use  of  this  substance  in  explosive 
mixtures  with  oxidizing  agents. 

The  explosion  is  explained  by  the  pre- 
sence of  nitrogen,  rendering  the  compound 
unstable,  the  fact  that  the  elements  are 
combined  in  the  molecule  not  according  to 
their  greatest  affinities,  whereas  in  the 
products  they  are  so  combined,  resulting 
in  the  production  of  great  heat,  and  finally 
the  change  of  state  from  solid  to  gas. 


57 

Potassium  Picrate. — Potassium  picrate^ 
Ce  H2  K  ( N  02  )3  0,  is  made  "by  mixing 
warm  potassium  carbonate  with  a  boiling 
solution  of  picric  acid  in  water.  It  is  a 
yellow,  crystalline  solid,  which  explodes 
by  percussion  or  heat. 

It  is  used  in  explosive  mixtures  with 
oxidizing  agents. 

Ammonium  Picrate. — Ammonium  picrater 
C6  H2  N  H4  (N  02)3  O,  is  made  by  saturat- 
ing warm  picric  acid  with  concentrated 
ammonia  water,  or  by  treating  picric  acid 
with  ammonium  carbonate.  It  is  an  orange^ 
or  citron-yellow,  crystalline  solid,  which 
explodes  when  heated  to  310°  C,  but  is- 
almost  insensitive  to  blows  or  friction. 

It  is  used  in  explosive  mixtures  with 
oxidizing  agents. 

b.     Derivatives  of  Toluene. 

Toluene,  C7  H8,  is  the  second  member  of 
the  benzene  series,  and  furnishes  a  series 
of  nitro-compounds  similar  to  those  ob- 
tained from  benzene. 

Mono-nitrotoluene. — Mono-nitr  otoluene, 
G6  H4  (N  O8)  C  H8,  is  formed  when  toluene 


05 

is  acted  upon  by  a  mixture  of  nitric  and 
sulphuric  acids,  the  ortho-nitrotoluene  be- 
ing commonly  present  when  the  mixture 
is  heated  for  some  time. 

Di-nitrotolmne. — Di-nitrotoluene,  C^  H3 
(N  O2)2  C  H3,  is  prepared  by  treating  tolu- 
ene with  a  mixture  of  the  strongest  nitric 
and  sulphuric  acids.  It  is  a  colorless, 
crystalline  solid,  not  itself  explosive,  but 
used  in  explosive  mixtures. 

Tri-nitrotoluene.  — tf-Tri-nitrotoluene,  C6 
H2  (N  O2)s  C  H3,  (1:2:4:  6),  is  one  of  the 
products  of  the  continued  boiling  of  tolu- 
ene in  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids. 

Tri-nitrocresol. — Cresol,  C7  H8  O,  is  de- 
rived theoretically  from  toluene,  by  replac- 
ing one  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  in  the  mole- 
cule by  hydroxyl,  just  as  carbolic  acid  is  de- 
rived from  benzene.  Tri-nitrocresol,  or 
Cresilite,  C7  H5  (N  02)3  O,  is  prepared  by 
treating  cresol  with  strong  nitric  acid. 

It  is  a  yellow  crystalline  solid,  not  ex- 
plosive itself,  but  used  in  explosive  mix- 
tures. 

Ecrasite.— Ecrasite,  C7  H4  N  H4  (N  O2)$ 


53 

0,  is  made  by  neutralizing  a  boiling-hot 
saturated  solution  of  tri-nitrocresol  by 
means  of  ammonium  hydrate.  It  is  a 
greasy  yellow  solid,  unaffected  by  moisture, 
heat,  cold  or  concussion,  which  explodes 
violently  under  the  action  of  a  fulminate 
detonator.  It  is  used  in  Austria  for  charg- 
ing shells,,  has  been  much  experimented 
with,  and  has  attracted  considerable  atten- 
tion quite  recently.  The  shells  charged 
with  this  explosive  are  designed  more  par- 
ticularly for  the  attack  of  fortifications. 

B, 

Derivatives  of  the  Naphthalene  Series. 

The  naphthaline  series  comprises  hydro- 
carbons of  the  general  symbol 

Cn  H2n_12 
in  which  n  is  at  least  10. 

Derivatives  of  Naphthalene. 

Naphthalene,  C10  H8,  is  the  lowest  mem- 
ber of  the  naphthalene  series,  and  fur- 
nishes a  series  of  nitro-compounds  similar 
to  those  obtained  from  benzene  and  tolu- 
ene. Its  structural  formula  is : 


60 


t    r 


' 


i      i 


Four  degrees  of  nitration  have  been  ob- 
tained. 

Mono-nitronaphihalene. — Mono-nitronaph- 
thalene,  C10  H7  (N  O2),  may  be  prepared 
by  introducing  finely  pulverized  naphtha- 
lene into  a  mixture  of  four  parts  nitric 
acid  (sp.  gr.  1.4)  and  five  parts  sulphuric 
acid  (sp.  gr.  1.84),  keeping  the  tempera- 
ture above  160°  F. 

It  is  a  yellow  crystalline  solid,  which  de- 
composes when  heated  above  300°  C.  It 
is  not  explosive,  as  may  be  inferred  from 
the  small  proportion  of  oxygen  in  the  com- 
pound, but  is  used  in  explosive  mixtures. 

Di-nitronaphthalene. — Di-n  itronaphtha- 
lene,  C10  H6  (NO2)2,  may  by  made  by  treat* 


61 

ing  naphthalene  at  70°  C.,  with  a  mixture 
of  one  part  concentrated  nitric  acid  and 
two  parts  sulphuric  acid. 

It  is  a  yellow,  crystalline  solid,  which 
deflagrates  if  heated  suddenly. 

Tri-nitro-naphtlialene. — Tri-nitro-naphtha- 
lene,  C10  H5  (N  Oa)3,  is  made  by  boiling  di- 
nitro-naphthalene  with  fuming  nitric  acid- 
It  is  a  yellow  crystalline  solid,   which 
explodes  when  heated. 

Tetra-nitro- naphthalene.  —  Tetra-nitro- 
naphthalene,  C,0  H4  (NO2)4?  is  made  by 
boiling  di-nitro-naphthalene  with  fuming 
nitric  acid  and  continuing  the  action  be- 
yond that  required  to  form  the  tri-com- 
pound. 

It  is  a  yellow  crystalline  solid,  which 
explodes  when  heated. 

All  the  nitro-naphthalenes  are  used  in 
explosive  mixtures. 

5.— ORGANIC  NITRATES. 

The  organic  nitrates  may  be  represented 
by  the  general  symbol 

R-0-N00, 


62 


in  which  R  is  an  organic  radical,  and  they 
are  derived  from  H  — O — N  Oa  ( nitric  acid) 
by  the  substitution  of  a  basic  organic 
radical  (C3H5,  etc.)  for  the  hydrogen  of 
the  acid,  or  by  the  substitution  of  the  acid 
radical,  N  O8,  for  the  hydrogen  of  the  hy- 
droxyl  of  the  organic  compound,  according 
to  the  two  general  methods  in  which  all 
oxysalts  may  be  conceived  to  be  formed. 

These  compounds,  being  true  nitrates, 
are  distinguished  from  the  nitro-substitu- 
tion  compounds  by  the  fact  that  the  N  O2 
group  in  each  is  united  to  the  carbon  atom 
of  the  organic  radical  not  directly,  but 
through  an  atom  of  oxygen. 

They  may  be  divided  into  two  sections : 

Derivatives  of  the  Benzene  Series. 

Derivatives  of  the  Alcohol  Series. 

A. 

Derivatives  of  the  Benzene  Series, 

There  is  but  one  important  compound 
in  this  section  of  explosives. 

Di-azobenzene  Nitrate.  —  Di-azobenzene 
nitrate,  C6  H5  N2  N  O3,  is  prepared  by  pas- 
sing nitrous  acid  vapor  into  a  flask  con- 


63 


taining  aniline  nitrate  moistened  with  a 
small  quantity  of  water,  -and  cooled  with 
ice  5  the  resulting  liquid  is  filtered,  alcohol 
and  ether  are  added,  and  the  diazobenzene 
nitrate  separates  as  a  crystelline  mass  : 


2H20. 

Its  structural  formula  is: 

O=N=O 


H 0  ^C — H 

i     i 

H <T  ^C  — H 


fa  explodes  violently  -when  heated   (at 
90°  C.): 

2  C4  H.  N,  Oa  =  5  Ha  O  +  CO  +  6  C  N 


64 


+  5  C,  and  has  been  proposed  for  use  as  a 
detonating  primer. 

This  compound  is  the  connecting  link 
between  the  nitro-compounds  and  the  or- 
ganic nitrates,  although  it  is  a  true  nitrate; 
for  we  find  here  th&  molecules  of  NO2  con- 
nected, not  as  in  the  former,  directly  to  a 
carbon  atom,  but  as  in  the  latter,  through 
an  atom  of  oxygen,  with  the  modification 
in  this  case,  however,  that  two  atoms  of 
nitrogen  also  intervene. 

B. 

Derivatives  of  the  Alcohol  Series, 

The  alcohols    may    be    considered    as 
formed  from  water 

H-(O-H), 

in  the  molecule  of  which  one  of  the  hydro- 
gen atoms  has  been  replaced  by  a  com- 
pound radical,  the  alcohols  being  desig- 
nated as  monatomic,  diatomic,  triatomic, 
tetratomic,  pentatomic,  hexatomic,  etc., 
according  as  they  are  derived  from  one, 
two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  etc.,  molecules  of 
water : 


05 

H— (0  H).  H3  C  (O  H). 

H.-tOH),.  H4C3(OH),. 

H3-(0  HV  H6  C3  (O  H), 

H4-(0  H)«. 

H.-(0  H).. 

H6-(0  H)..  C12  H14  04  (0  H), 

The  alcohols  may  therefore  be  regarded  as 
compounds  of  organic  radicals  with  hy- 
droxyl  ;  in  other  words ,  as  organic  hydrox- 
ides. 

The  nitric  derivatives  of  the  alcohol 
series  may  be  divided  into  two  sub-sec- 
tions : 

Derivatives  of  Triatomic  Alcohols . 

Derivatives  of  Hexatomic  Alcohols. 

a.  Derivatives  of  Triatomic  Alcohols. 

There  is  but  one  triatomic  alcohol  that 
concerns  us  here,  namely  glycerine,  C3  H8 
O3,  or  C3H5  (0  H)3,  and  but  one  organic 
nitrate  derived  from  it,  namely  glyceryl 
nitrate,  or  nitro-glycerine. 

Nitroglycerine. — Nitroglycerine,  C3  H5  O3 
(N  02)3,  is  prepared  by  treating  glycerine 
with  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric 


66 

acids,  keeping  the  mixture  cool  during  the 
conversion : 

C3  H6  (0  H),  +  3  H  (N  Oi)  =  C3H5  (N O3)3 
+  3H30. 

The  purpose  of  the  sulphuric  acid  is  to 
concentrate  the  nitric  acid,  by  absorbing 
the  water  which  even  the  strongest  com- 
mercial nitric  acid  always  has,  and  keeping 
it  concentrated  by  taking  up  the  water 
produced  in  the  reaction. 

This  absorption  of  water,  (as  well  as 
the  other  chemical  actions  in  the  process) 
is  attended  by  the  production  of  heat,  and 
at  30°  C.  there  is  danger  of  explosion, 
hence  the  necessity  for  keeping  the  mix- 
ture cool. 

In  the  manufacture  of  nitroglycerine 
the  purest  and  most  concentrated  materials 
(acids  and  glycerine)  are  used.  The  pro- 
portions used  are  about  1  part  glycerine  to 
8  parts  of  a  mixture  of  3  parts  nitric  and 
5  parts  sulphuric  acid. 

The  acids,  if  obtained  separately,  are 
run  into  a  cast-iron  mixing  tank,  mixed  by 
means  of  compressed  air,  and  allowed  to 
cool  for  twelve  or  twenty-four  hours. 


67 

The  cooled  acid  mixture  (which  may  be 
purchased  already  mixed,)  is  run  into  the 
acid  tank,  also  of  cast-iron,  and  the  neces- 
sary amount  of  glycerine  is  introduced  in- 
to the  glycerine  tank;  the  mixed  acids  are 
then  run  into  the  converter,  a  cast-iron  ves- 
sel surrounded  by  a  water-jacket  and  con- 
taining leaden  worms  in  which  water  cir- 
culates, with  a  shaft  running  through  the 
centre,  on  which  blades  are  arranged  to 
form  a  helical  agitator  ;  water  is  made  to 
circulate  through  the  water-jacket  and  the 
cooling- worms,  and  the  agitator  is  started; 
the  glycerine  is  then  run  into  the  conver- 
ter, either  in  fine  streams  through  a  pipe 
perforated  with  small  holes,  or  as  a  spray 
by  means  of  compressed  air. 

During  the  conversion  the  temperature 
is  carefully  watched,  and  as  it  approaches 
30°  C.  the  flow  of  glycerine  is  stopped; 
should  the  temperature  continue  to  rise  the 
contents  are  emptied  into  the  discharge 
tanks,  which  are  lead-lined  wooden  tanks 
of  large  capacity,  kept  half  filled  with 
water. 

When  all  the  glycerine  has  been  run  in, 


68 

and  the  nitration  is  complete,  the  liquid  is 
run  into  the  first  separator,  a  large  vessel  of 
sheet  lead,  with  a  conical  bottom,  termi- 
nated by  a  seperatory  funnel  (connected 
for  safety  with  the  discharge  tanks).  The 
nitro-glycerine,  being  somewhat  lighter 
than  the  excess  of  acids,  collects  on  the 
surface  and  is  run  off  by  a  stop-cock 
placed  at  the  proper  level,  to  the  first 
washing-vat,  while  the  waste  acids  are  run 
out  to  a  second  separator  of  similar  action, 
the  separatory  funnel  separating  a  little 
more  of  the  nitro-glycerine,  which  is  added 
to  that  already  in  the  first  washing-vat. 

In  the  first  washing-vat  (a  lead-lined 
wooden  vessel,  with  an  inclined  bot- 
tom through  which  passes  a  leaden 
pipe  with  a  rosette  head  for  admitting 
compressed  air),  the  nitro-glycerine  is 
covered  with  a  large  volume  of  water, 
while  it  is  being  agitated  by  means  of 
compressed  air  admitted  below ;  the  water 
is  changed  four  or  five  times,  a  stop-cock 
being  placed  at  the  proper  level  to  run  it 
off;  the  washing  at  this  stage  is  then  com- 
pleted by  using  a  2%  per  cent,  solution  of 


69 

sodium  carbonate  5  the  nitroglycerine  is 
finally  run  off,  by  a  tap  at  the  bottom  of 
the  vat,  to  the  second  washing-vat,  similar 
to  the  first,  but  fitted  with  an  agitator, 
where  the  washing  is  completed. 

If  the  nitro-glycerine  is  to  be  used  for 
making  dynamite,  it  is  run  directly  to  the 
mixing  house,  but  if  it  is  not  to  be  used 
immediately  it  is  stored  in  lead-lined 
wooden  tanks. 

If  the  nitro-glycerine  is  to  be  used  in 
making  explosive  gelatine  or  smokeless 
powder,  it  is  usually  run  from  the  second 
washing- vat  to  the  filter,  a  lead-lined  wood- 
en vat,  the  top  of  which  is  fitted  with  a 
copper  or  lead  cylinder,  containing  first  a 
wire-gauze  disk,  over  which  is  placed  a 
second  disk  of  felt,  and  upon  this  a  com- 
pact layer  of  common  salt,  about  five 
inches  thick,  covered  with  another  felt 
disk  and  a  second  wire-gauze  disk.  The 
bottom  of  the  vat  is  inclined  and  has  a  tap 
for  running  off  the  filtered  nitro-glycerine 
at  its  lowest  level. 

Nitro-glycerine  is  a  heavy,  oily  liquid, 
(sp.  gr.  1.6),  generally  opaque  and  creamy 


70 

white,  or  clear  and  transparent,  sometimes 
yellowish.  It  is  slightly  soluble  in  warm 
water,  but  is  unaffected  by  cold  water ;  it 
is  soluble  in  methyl,  ethyl,  or  amyl  alco- 
hol, in  benzene,  carbon  disulphide,  ether, 
chloroform,  glacial  acetic  acid  and  phenol, 
and  also  sparingly  in  glycerine.  It  is  de- 
composed by  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (hence 
the  necessity  for  such  careful  washing  in 
its  manufacture),  by  ammonia,  and  by  alka- 
line carbonates  and  sulphides. 

It  freezes  to  a  white  crystalline  mass 
(the  opaque  variety  at  20°  C.,  the  trans- 
parent at  -f-  3°  C  ),  and  is  then  less  sensi- 
tive to  concussion.  Frozen  nitro-glycerine 
is  thawed  by  placing  it  in  a  room  where 
the  temperature  does  not  exceed  50°  C., 
or  in  the  field  or  in  mines  by  means  of  the 
water-bath  devised  for  the  purpose. 

It  explodes  by  percussion,  or  when 
heated  to  180°  C.,  but  the  best  effects  are 
produced  by  means  of  detonators  of  mer- 
cury fulminate : 

2C,HB0,(NO,),  =  5H10  +  6C01  + 
3N.  +  0. 

From  the  reaction  it  is  seen  that  this 


explosive  contains  more  oxygen   than  is 
necessary  for  the  complete  oxidation   o£ 
both  the  hydrogen  and  the  carbon. 
The  structural  formula  is: 

•?         ?         H 
H-<    --  C  —  C-H 

O          6 


s  ^  ^  ^  ^  \ 

.0      00      000 

and  the  energy  of  explosion  is  again  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  the  elements  of 
highest  affinity,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  are 
held  apart  in  the  molecule,  whereas  in  the 
products  they  are  united,  and  the  affinity 
of  the  carbon  atoms  for  oxygen  is  only 
partially  satisfied  in  the  molecule,  whereas 
in  the  products  it  is  completely  satisfied. 

Nitro-glycerine,  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, and  in  the  dark,  is  quite  stable,  but 
a  temperature  of  over  50°  C.  slowly  de- 
composes it,  and  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
have  the  same  effect.  When  in  a  state  of 
decomposition,  due  to  physical  or  chemi- 
cal causes,  it  becomes  much  more  sensi- 
tive to  various  causes  of  explosion. 


72 

Comparing  the  structural  formulae  of 
glycerine  and  nitro-glycerine  it  is  evident 
that  the  latter  is  a  £n'-nitrate,  and  it  is 
supposed  that  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a 
mono-nitrate  and  a  di-nitrate,  although 
they  have  not  as  yet  been  isolated.  One 
of  the  causes  of  explosion  in  improperly 
prepared  nitro-glycerine  is  supposed  to  be 
the  presence  of  one  or  both  of  these  lower 
products  of  nitration. 

6.  Derivatives  of  Hexatomic  Alcohols. 

The  following  hexatomic  alcohols  have 
furnished  explosive  nitrates: 

Mannite,C6  Hu  O6,  or  C6  H8  (O  H)6  and 
Cellulose,   C12  H20  O10,  or  C12   H14  O4 
(OH)6, 

but  the  following  derivatives  of  mannite 
( all  of  them  carbo-hydrates )  have  also 
furnished  such  nitrates : 

Glucose,  C6  H12  06,  an  aldehyde  of  man- 
nite,  obtained  by  oxidising  and  re- 
moving from  the  molecule  of  the  latter 
two  atoms  of  hydrogen. 
Starch,  C]2  H20  O10,  an  anhydride  of  glu- 


73 

cose,  obtained  by  removing  a  molecule 
of  water  from  the  molecule  of  the 
latter. 

Saccharose,  CJ2  H22  On,  an  anhydride  of 
glucose,  obtained  by  removing  a  mole- 
cule of  water  from  two  molecules  of 
the  latter. 

Lactose,  Cia  H22  On,  H,  O,  derived  in  the 
same  way,  but  taking  up  a  molecule 
of  water  of  crystallization. 

Only  a  few  of  these  nitrates  have  proven 
of  practical  value. 

Nitro-mannite.  —  Nitro-mannite,  C6  H8 
(NO3)6  is  prepared  by  adding  powdered 
mannite  to  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  by 
volume  of  the  strongest  nitric  and  sul- 
phuric acids  j  the  result  is  washed  with  a 
large  volume  of  water,  -and  crystallized 
from  boiling  alcohol. 

It  explodes  violently  by  percussion. 

Nitro-siarch.  —  Nitro-starch,  Cia  H14  O4 
(N  O8)6,  is  prepared  by  dissolving  starch 
in  the  strongest  nitric  acid,  and  then  add- 
ing the  solution,  when  cool,  to  a  mixture 
of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids. 


74 

It  is  very  hygroscopic  and  liable  to 
undergo  spontaneous  decomposition;  it  is 
insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  nitrogly- 
cerine, in  acetic  ether,  and  in  a  mixture  of 
ether  and  alcohol. 

Two  other  nitrates,  besides  the  hexani- 
trate,  namely,  the  tetranitrate  (formerly 
called  xyloidine]  and  the  pentanitrate,  have 
been  obtained. 

Nitro-  Cellulose. — The  most  reliable  in- 
vestigations on  the  constitution  of  cellulose 
and  its  nitrates  indicate  that  the  former  is 
a  hexatomic  alcohol, 

C13  H14  04  (0  H)., 

and  its  structural  formula  may  be : 

-  •  ?  n 

HOOP    0—0 


H  H    H    H    H    H 


H  i 
-??* 

H    H    H 


t    I  I 

HT 


7o 

Whether  the  above  be  the  true  symbol 
for  cellulose,  or  the  latter  be  some  higher 
multiple  of  C6  H10  05,  the  structural  for- 
mula will  probably  still  contain  in  each 
link  of  the  chain  of  atoms  an  arrangement 
of  atoms  something  like  the  above,  because 
it  is  fairly  well  established  that  in  each  such 
link  three  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  are  con- 
nected to  carbon  atoms  through  an  atom  of 
oxygen,  and  not  more  than  three. 

Accepting  the  above  as  the  true  formula 
it  is  evident  that  the  following  nitrates 
may  be  formed,  by  substitution  of  one  or 
more  molecules  of  NO3  for  one  or  more 
molecules  of  hydroxyl : 

C,.H1404(NO,UOH).. 

C12H1404(N03UOH)4. 
CltHI404(NO.).(OH), 

C,,H1404(N03)4(OH),  ' 

C12H1404(N08)6(OH)). 
C12H1404(N08).. 

The  lower  nitrates  are  designated  by 
the  general  terms  soluble  nitro-cotton  or  col- 
lodion gun-cotton,  and  are  soluble  in  a  mix 
ture  of  alcohol  and  ether  j  the  pentanitrate 


76 

is  one  of  the  forms  of  nitro-cotton  em- 
ployed for  smokeless  powders  ;  and  the 
hexa-iiitrate  is  guiicotton,  which  is  insol- 
uble in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether. 

As  in  the  preparation  of  other  com- 
pounds of  this  kind,  the  degree  of  nitration 
depends  upon  the  strength  of  the  acids 
used,  and  on  other  precautions  taken  in  the 
manufacture.  For  the  highest  degree  the 
purest  materials  and  the  strongest  acids 
are  required. 

Pyrocollodion. — Pyrocollodion,  4  [C12  Hu 
04  (N  0.).  (O  H)]  +  1  [Clf  Hlt  04  (N  08)4 
(O  H)2],  or  (if  it  be  a  true  compound),  C80 
H38  O13  ( N  O3  )12,  is  the  new  Russian 
smokeless  powder  of  Professor  1).  Mende- 
leef.  The  exact  mode  of  preparation  is 
still  a  secret,  but  it  is  formed  according  to 
the  reaction : 

5  [Clt  HM  04  (O  H)J  +  24  H  N  03  =  2 
[C30  H8i  013  (N  0,)u]  +  24  H2  0,  or,  if  the 
result  be  a  mixture  of  tetra  and  penta  ni- 
trates, in  constant  proportion,  instead  of  a 
simple  compound: 

=  4  [C12  HI4  04  (N  03)5  (0  H)!]  +  1  [C» 
HM  0«  (N  08)4  (0  H),]  +  24  H,  O. 


77 

This  explosive  is  insoluble  in  ether  or 
alcohol,  bub  wholly  soluble  in  a  mixture  of 
these  substances,  and  gelatinises  when 
the  quantity  of  the  solvent  is  small.  It 
can  be  converted  into  ribbons  or  plates, 
which,  when  dried,  have  the  appearance 
of  celluloid.  It  keeps  well,  and  can  be 
heated  to  65. °5  C.  for  hours  without  un- 
dergoing any  change. 

But  the  great  advantages  claimed  for  it 
are: 

1.  Homogeneity  of   composition,   which 
determines  directly  the  uniformity  of  the 
ballistic  results  obtained. 

2.  The  development  of  a  greater  volume 
of  gases  (measured  at  a  given  temperature 
and  pressure)  than  is  developed  by  black 
or  brown  powder,  by  nitro-glycerine  pow- 
ders, or  even  by  the  more  highly  nitrated 
forms  of  nitro  cellulose. 

The  homogeneity  remains  the  same 
whether  it  be  a  single  compound  or  a  mix- 
ture of  two  compounds,  provided  this  mix- 
ture is  always  fixed  and  definite,  and 
formed,  not  by  mechanically  mixing  two 
separately  prepared  compounds,  but  by  a 


78 

single  chemical  reaction.  The  other 
forms  of  nitro-cellulose  almost  always 
contain  more  or  less  of  the  less  highly 
nitrated  products,  and  all  mechanical  mix- 
tures are,  of  course,  much  less  homogenous 
in  a  chemical  sense,  while  the  nitro-glycerine 
powders,  consisting  of  nitro-cellulose  dis- 
solved in  nitro-glycerine,  though  apparent- 
ly as  homogeneous  as  solutions  can  be  by 
their  action  nevertheless  leave  room  for 
believing  that  in  their  explosion  the  nitro- 
glycerine is  decomposed  first,  the  nitro- 
cellulose portion  burning  subsequently. 
The  results  of  the  published  experiments 
are  greatly  in  favor  of  pyrocollodion,  both 
as  regards  progressiveness  and  uniformity 
of  action. 

The  explosion  of  pyrocollodion  may  be 
represented  by  the  reaction: 

4  [C12HM  04  (N  03)5  (O  H)J  +  1  [Cia  Hu 
O4(NO3)4  (OH),]  =  60  C  O  +  38H,  O+12 

Nr 

The  volume  of  gas  (measured  at  a  fixed 
temperature  and  pressure)  from  1,000 
parts  by  weight  of  the  explosive  is  81.5, 


79 

whereas  that  from  the  same  weight  of 
brown  powder  is  about  34,  from  nitro- 
glycerine 52.7,  and  from  the  hexanitrate 
(guncotton)  74.1. 

The  experiments  with  the  3  pounder 
(47  mm.)  rapid  fire  gun  show  that  with  a 
pressure  of  2079  atmospheres  an  initial 
velocity  of  699m.  (2293')  was  attained.  In 
the  6  pounder,  (projectile  weighing  about 
40kg.)  an  initial  velocity  of  878  m.  (2880/5) 
was  obtained,  although  the  average  for 
this  gun  was  about  792  m.  (2598'). 

Guncotton*  —  Guncotton,  Cia  Hu  O4 
(N  Os  )6,  is  the  nitric  ether  of  cellulose, 
the  latter  being  regarded  as  a  hexatomic 
alcohol,  Cia  JIl4  O4  (O  H)6.  It  is  prepared 
by  treating  cellulose  with  a  mixture  of 
nitric  and  sulphuric  acids: 


C,,H1404(OH). 

0,(N03)6  +  6H,0. 

The  sulphuric  acid  serves  the  same  pur- 
purpose  in  this  case  as  in  the  manufacture 
of  nitro-glycerine. 

*  See  Number  89,  Van  Nostrantfs  Science  Series. 


80 

The  principles  upon  which  its  manufac- 
ture depends  are:  (1)  the  thorough  cleans- 
ing of  the  cotton ;  (2)  its  thorough  drying, 
(less  than  0.5  per  cent,  of  moisture  being 
permissible);  (3)  the  cooling  of  the  cotton; 
(4)  the  use  of  the  strongest  acids  obtain- 
able in  commerce ;  (5)  the  continuance  of 
the  steeping  for  at  least  12  hours;  (6)  the 
thorough  purification  of  the  guncotton 
from  every  trace  of  free  acid. 

The  process  of  manufacture,  as  conduc- 
ted at  the  U.  S.  Naval  Torpedo  Station,  is 
as  follows: 

The  principles  upon  which  its  manufac- 
ture depends  are: 

1.  The   thorough  cleansing  of  the  cot- 
ton. 

2.  Its  thorough  drying. 

3.  Tlie  cooling  of  the  clean  dry  cotton. 

4.  The  use  of  the  strongest  acids  ob- 
tainable in  commerce. 

5.  The  continuance  of  the  steeping  for 
at  least  twelve  hours. 

6.  The    thorough    purification   of  the 
guneotton  from  every  trace  of  free  acid. 

The  process  of  manufacture,  as  conduc- 


81 

ted  at  the  U.  S.  Naval  Torpedo  Station  is 
as  follows  :* 

The  cotton  clippings  from  the  spinning- 
room  are  first  sorted  by  hand,  and  then 
pass  to  the  first  boiling  tub,  where  200 
pounds  are  boiled  in  caustic  soda  solution 
for  about  8  hours;  after  the  first  boiling 
the  liquid  is  run  off,  clear  water  is  added, 
and  the  boiling  continued  for  8  hours  more. 
The  wet  cotton  is  then  taken  to  the  first 
centrifugai  washer  (making  about  1400 
revolutions  a  minute),  in  which  about  6 
pounds  of  the  cotton  at  a  time  are  washed 
in  a  stream  of  water,  each  charge  requir- 
about  8  minutes,  and  the  entire  mass 
about  2  hours. 

The  washed  cotton  is  then  placed  in  the 
drying  room,  on  shelves  of  galvanized  iron 
wire  netting,  and  dried  by  hot  air,  the 
temperature  being  kept  at  about  187°  F.; 
this  takes  about  4  days.  The  dried  cot- 
ton is  then  placed  in  the  picker,  (like  that 
used  in  cotton  mills),  where  it  is  loosened 


*  For    full    and  clear  description  of  the  process  see 
Lectures  on  Explosives,  WALKE. 


82 

and  untangled,  and  is  then  further  dried 
by  hot  air  at  225°  F.,  in  galvanized  iron 
drawers  with  wire-netting  bottoms,  in  the 
drying  closet.  It  is  packed  while  still 
hot  into  service  powder-tanks,  the  covers 
screwed  on,  and  the  cotton  allowed  to 
cool. 

When  cool  it  is  ready  for  dipping,  which 
takes  place  in  the  dipping- troughs,  of  which 
there  are  five,  each  holding  about  150 
pounds  of  mixed  acids :  they  are  made  of 
cast-iron,  and  set  in  an  iron  trough  where 
they  are  kept  below  70°  F.  by  circulating 
water.  The  acids  are  obtained  ready 
mixed,  one  part  by  weight  of  pure  nitric 
acid  (sp.  gr.  1.5)  to  three  parts  by  weight 
of  sulphuric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.845),  and  are 
transported  in  wrought-iron  cylindrical 
drums,  each  holding  about  1200  pounds, 
and  pumped  into  stoneware  reservoirs, 
where  they  are  led  to  the  dipping  troughs. 
The  first  of  the  troughs  is  used  as  a  res- 
ervoir for  the  acid  to  be  immediately  used, 
the  other  four  for  dipping. 

The  cotton  is  weighed  out  in  one-pound 
lots,  and  each  lot  is  divided  into  three 


83 

equal  parts,  each  part  being  worked  into 
the  acid  in  turn  by  means  of  a  steel  fork, 
and  stirred  about.  As  soon  as  the  fourth 
trough  has  its  charge  the  cotton  is  taken 
out  in  the  same  order  and  placed  on  the 
grating  above  each  trough,  where  it  is 
squeezed  by  means  of  a  lever-press  and  is 
then  placed  in  the  digestion-pots  (two-gal- 
lon stone- ware  crocks)  the  covers  of  which 
are  put  on;  finally,  the  pots  are  placed  in 
water  in  a  cooling-trough  and  left  over 
night. 

The  digestion-pots  are  drained  and  dried 
externally,  and  two  pots  full  of  guncotton 
at  a  time  are  partially  freed  from  acid 
in  a  centrifugal  acid- wringer ;  after  which 
the  guncotton  is  fed,  little  by  little,  into 
the  immersion-tub,  of  800  gallons  capacity, 
through  which  water  flows  at  a  rapid  rate, 
the  guncotton  being  carried  quickly  under 
water  by  a  cylindrical  wooden  drum  rota- 
ting on  a  horizontal  axis.  Fifty  crocks 
are  thus  emptied  into  the  tub.  The  gun- 
cotton  is  then  placed  on  a  wooden  rack  to 
drain. 

After  draining,  the  entire  mass  is  placed 


84 

in  the  second  boiling-tub  (of  300  gallons 
capacity),  which  is  heated  by  a  steam-coil 
placed  under  a  false  bottom  in  the  tub, 
and  boiled  for  eight  hours  in  water  con- 
taining 10  pounds  of  sodium  carbonate  j  it 
is  then  allowed  to  drain  overnight,  washed 
with  fresh  water  in  a  centrifugal  wringer, 
again  boiled  in  the  boiling-tub,  drained, 
and  washed  as  before. 

The  guncotton  is  next  fed  into  the  pul- 
per,  the  ordinary  rag  engine  of  the  paper- 
mills,  where  it  is  cut  to  the  fineness  of 
corn  meal.  The  pulp  is  then  run  into  the 
poacher,  a  large  wooden  tub,  in  which  a 
cylinder  armed  with  wooden  feathers  ro- 
tates the  mass  and  keeps  the  guncotton  in 
suspension  in  the  water,  the  guncotton 
being  allowed  to  settle  and  drain  every 
hour,  fresh  water  added,  and  the  operation 
repeated  and  continued  for  about  two 
days.  When  the  washing  is  completed 
(which  is  determined  by  a  test)  there  is 
added  3  pounds  of  precipitated  chalk,  3 
pounds  of  caustic  soda,  300  gallons  of 
lime  water,  and  water  enough  to  bring  the 
entire  mass  to  800  gallons ;  and  by  means 


85. 

of  a  vacuum-pump  this  is  raised  into  the 
stuff-chest,  a  cylindrical  iron  tank,  through 
the  center  of  which  passes  a  vertical  shaft, 
with  feathers,  geared  to  a  horizontal  shaft, 
serving  as  a  stirrer  to  keep  the  contents 
uniformly  mixed.  The  pulp  is  transferred 
to  the  wagon,  a  cylindrical  copper  vessel, 
holding  25  gallons,  in  which  a  stirrer  is 
also  kept  going,  while  it  moves  on  rails 
from  the  stuff-chest  to  the  moulding-press, 
in  which  the  guncotton  is  pressed  into 
blocks,  2.9  inches  square  and  two  inches 
high,  which  are  finally  completed  in  the 
final-press. 

These  guncotton  blocks  contain  about 
14  per  cent,  of  moisture ;  and  before  being 
sent  out  into  service  they  are  placed  in 
troughs  of  water  till  they  cease  to  absorb 
any  more,  when  they  contain  about  35  per 
cent. 

Guncotton  in  the  fibrous  state  is  very 
like  the  cotton  from  which  it  is  made,  in 
appearance,  but  feels  harsher  and  less 
flexible.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  hot  or 
cold,  or  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether, 
but  soluble  in  ethyl  acetate,  in  acetone, 


86 


and  in  a  mixture  of  ether  and  ammonia 
When  dissolved  in  caustic  alkali  solutions 
the  cellulose  may  be  precipitated  in  a  floc- 
culent  form  by  neutralizing  the  alkali.  In 
the  fibrous  or  flocculent  state  its  density 
is  not  over  0.3,  but  by  pressure  it  may  be 
increased  to  1.5.  Air-dried  guncotton 
contains  about  2  per  cent,  of  moisture. 

It  explodes  at  about  182°  C.  The  im- 
purities in  the  cotton  fibre,  under  the 
'action  of  nitric  acid,  give  rise  to  the  nitro- 
genized  substances  which  cause  the  de- 
composition of  guncotton  by  first  forming 
free  acid :  the  effect  of  this  action  is 
neutralized  by  mixing  with  the  guncotton 
a  small  percentage  of  sodium  carbonate. 
Wet  guncotton  is  perfectly  safe,  and  can 
only  be  exploded  by  means  of  a  primer  of 
dry  guncotton  while  the  best  effects  of 
dry  guncotton  are  obtained  by  a  detonator 
of  mercury  fulminate. 

The  explosion  of  guncotton  is  practical- 
ly represented  by  the  equation : 

C,,HM04  (NO,).  =  7^0  +  300,+ 
9  C  O  +  3  N,. 


87 

594  parts  by  weight  =  7x2  +  3x2  + 
9x2  +  3x2  =  44  volumes. 

594  :  1000  ::  44  :  V1000  =  74.1  volumes. 

The  reaction  shows  that  guncotton  is 
deficient  in  oxygen,  since  only  part  of  the 
carbon  is  oxidized  to  carbon  dioxide,  a 
large  proportion  remaining  as  carbon 
monoxide. 

Nitro-Hydrocdhtlose. — Nitro-Hydrocellu- 
lose  is  a  guncotton  prepared  by  steeping  cot- 
ton for  a  few  minutes  in  an  acid  mixture  of 
3  parts  sulphuric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.84)  or  3  parts 
hydro-chloric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.20)  to  97  parts 
water,  washing  and  drying.  The  pulveru- 
lent hydro-cellulose  is  then  nitrated  in  the 
usual  way.  The  nitro-hydrocellulose  is 
used  for  making  primers  for  blasting  gela- 
tine. 

II.  MIXTURES. 

CONTAINING  NITRO-COMPOUNDS  OR 
ORGANIC  NITRATES. 

The  principles  on  which  mixtures  of  this 
class  are  based  are : 


1.  Some  of  the  nitre-compounds  or  or- 
ganic nitrates  have  in  themselves  an  in- 
sufficient supply  of  oxygen  for  complete 
oxidation,  hence  the  advantage  of  mixing 
oxidizing  agents  with  them. 

2.  Some  of  the  nitro-compounds  or  or- 
ganic nitrates  have  in  themselves  an  in- 
sufficient supply  of  oxygen  for  complete 
oxydation,  while  others   have   an  excess, 
hence   the  advantage  of  mixing  them  in 
proper  proportions. 

3.  Some  of  the  nitro-compounds  or  or- 
ganic nitrates  are  liquid,  which  is  a  dis- 
advantage in  many  ways,  hence  they  are 
mixed  with  solids,  which  absorbs  the  li- 
quid, and  convert  the  whole  into  a  solid 
mass.      The  solids  used  may  be  ( a )  inert 
bodies,  which   merely   act   like  a  sponge 
and  render   the   explosive   less  sensitive 
but  also  less  powerful ;  (&)  low  explosives, 
which   permit  a  lower  percentage  of  the 
liquid  explosives  being  used  than  the  inert 
bodies  j    ( c )   high    explosives,   which,   of 
course,  increase  the  effect  of  explosion. 

4.  Some  of  the   nitro-compounds    ( as 
well  as  other  substances )  act  as  deterrents, 


89 

and  are  therefore  added  to  high  explosives 
when  a  comparatively  slow  action  is  re- 
quired. 

5.  Some   of   the   mtro-compounds   (as 
well  as  other  substances)  lower  the  freez- 
ing point  of  the  liquid  organic  nitrates,  and 
are  added  to  prevent  the  freezing  of  the 
latter. 

6.  Some  of  the  liquid  nitro-compounds 
or  organic  nitrates  gelatinize  solid  organic 
nitrates,  and  thus  place  them  in  a  physical 
condition  by  which  the  rate  of  conbustion 
may  be  regulated  and  controlled. 

7.  In  coal  mines  a  special  quality  is? 
desirable  in  the  explosive  to  be  used,  name 
ly,  that  it  shall  not  readily  fire  the  mine. 
The    ordinary    gunpowders,    as    well    a& 
nitroglycerine,   dynamite,   etc.,  as  usually 
prepared,  are  found  to  cause  explosions  of 
mines   by    setting  fire   to   the    explosive 
mixture  of  marsh   gas    and   atmospheric 
air  often  present,  or  to  the  finely  divided 
coal   dust   very    commonly   disseminated 
through  the  air  of  such  a  mine.     Now,  it 
has  been  found  that  explosive  mixtures 
(blasting  powders)  do  this  in  varying  de- 


90 

grees,  much  greater  weights  of  some  than 
of  others  being  required  for  the  purpose. 

The  explanation  of  this  action  is  not  far 
to  seek.  It  is  well  known  that  to  explode 
a  mixture  of  marsh  gas  and  air  requires  a 
high  temperature  ( that  corresponding  to  the 
white  heat  of  solids ),  consequently  it  must 
be  in  contact  with  flame  for  a  certain  time 
in  order  to  have  its  temperature  raised  to 
the  point  of  ignition. 

Now,  in  the  case  of  ordinary  gunpowder 
and  the  low  explosives  generally,  the  tem- 
perature of  explosion,  although  not  very 
high,  is  yet  high  enough,  and  the  slowness 
of  the  action  gives  the  necessary  time  for 
the  explosion  of  the  gaseous  mixture. 
Again,  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary  high 
explosives,  the  temperature  of  explosion 
is  so  high  that  little  time  is  required,  and 
the  same  effect  is  produced,  whereas,  in 
the  case  of  certain  mixtures  ( safety  blast- 
ing powders),  which  have  thus  far  been 
determined  only  by  experiment,  the  tem- 
perature is  kept  down,  but  the  quickness 
of  action  is  not  interfered  with,  so  that, 
at  the  temperature  of  explosion  (of  the 


91 

blasting  powder)  reached,  firing  of  the 
mine  does  not  take  place.  Of -course  the 
sudden  rapid  motion  of  the  air,  conse- 
quent on  the  explosion  of  the  blasting 
powder,  also  prevents  the  temperature  of 
any  particular  portion  rising  to  the  point 
of  ignition. 

1. — NITROBENZENE  MIXTURES. 

Containing  no  other  nitro-compound  and  no 
organic  nitrate. 

The  nitrobenzene  mixtures  are  all  based 
on  the  fact  that  the  nitrobenzenes  are 
deficient  in  oxygen,  and  are  consequently 
made  more  efficient  as  explosives  by  the 
addition  of  oxidising  agents. 

Bellite. —  Bellite  is  a  Swedish  powder 
made  by  fusing  together  dinitrobenzene 
and  ammonium  nitrate,  pressing  and  gran- 
ulating the  fused  mass.  It  is  plastic  and 
can  be  pressed  into  cartridges ;  it  is  some- 
what hygroscopic.  It  is  safe  against  fric- 
tion, heat,  or  the  explosion  of  gunpowder, 
and  can  be  exploded  only  by  detonators. 

The  explosion  is  accompanied  by  very 


little  flame,  and  for  the  older  proportions 
o£  1  part  meta-dinitrobenzene  and  5  parts 
ammonium  nitrate  may  be  represented  by: 
C6H4(N02)2  +  10[(NH4)N03]  =  22 
H20  +  6C02  +  11N2. 

For  the  best  blasting  powders  the  pro- 
portions are: 

Bellite  No.  1.  —  82  ammonium  nitrate  18 
dinitrobenzene. 

Bellite  No.  3.  —  95  ammonium  nitrate  5 
dinitrobenzene. 

Securite.  —  Securite  is  composed  of  26 
parts  of  meta-dinitrobenzene  and  74  parts 
of  ammonium  nitrate,  although  later  varie- 
ties contain  the  trinitrobenzene  as  well,  and 
Flameless  Securite  contains  an  addition  of 
ammonium  oxalate.  It  is  a  bright  yellow 
granular  solid,  not  hygroscopic,  and  high 
in  explosive  force.  Its  explosion  is  repre- 
sented by  : 

C6H4(N01),  +  6[(NH4)NO,]=  14 


Eack-a-Eock.  —  Rack-a-Rock  is  an  explo- 
sive of  the  Sprengel  Class,  the  separately 
transported  constituents  being  mononitro- 


93 

benzene  (21  parts)  and  potassium  chlorate 
(79  parts).  In  preparing  the  explosive 
the  chlorate  cartridges  are  placed  in  cells 
in  a  pan,  and  the  proper  amount  of  the 
liquid  is  poured  over  each.  When  ready 
for  use  it  is  still  quite  safe  to  handle,  since 
ordinary  friction  has  little  tendency  to 
explode  it. 

The  reaction  of  its  explosion  is  approxi- 
mately: 

2C6H5(N02)  +  8KCZ03  =  SKGI  + 


This  is  the  explosive  which  was  used  in 
the  removal  of  Flood  Rock. 

Hettkoffite.  —  Hellhoffite  is  another  explo- 
sive of  the  Sprengel  Class,  the  constituents 
being  meta-dinitrobenzene  (47  parts)  and 
nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.50,  53  parts). 

It  is  a  powerful  explosive,  but  the  nitric 
acid  is  difficult  to  transport  and  to  store. 
If  water  be  added  to  the  mixture  it  becomes 
nonexplosive,  which  is  an  advantage  in 
general,  but,  of  course,  prevents  its  use 
under  water. 


94 

Edburite. — Roburite,  a  blasting  powder, 
is  made  in  several  grades: 

No.  1.  No.  3. 

Ammonium  nitrate,      -     87.7  87.5 

Dinitrobenzene,    -     -     -     7.2  7.0 

Potassium  permanganate,  5.1  0.5 

Ammonium  sulphate,  5.0 
Some  varieties  contain  about  2  per  cent, 
of  chloronaphthaline. 

2. — PICRATE  MIXTURES. 

Containing  no  other  nitro-compotmd  and  no 
organic  nitrate. 

The  principle  of  these  mixtures  is  that 
the  picrates  have  not  sufficient  oxygen, 
and  can  therefore  be  made  efficient  as  ex- 
plosives by  adding  oxidizing  agents. 

Oxonite. — Oxonite,  an  explosive  of  the 
Sprengel  Class,  consists  of  picric  acid 
packed  in  a  calico  cartridge,  in  which  is 
placed  a  hermetically  sealed  glass  tube 
containing  nitric  acid:  the  tube  is  broken 
by  a  blow  before  inserting  the  cartridge. 
It  resembles  hellhoffite,  but  is  not  so  pow- 


95 

erful,  and  requires  a  very  powerful  deto- 
nator. 

C6H2(N  02)90  H+3  HN03=  3  H2  0  + 


Designollds  Powder.  —  Designolle's  pow- 
der, manufactured  at  Le  Bouchet,  France, 
consists  of  potassium  picrate,  potassium 
nitrate  and  charcoal,  prepared  like  ordi- 
nary gunpowder.  The  proportions  for 
small  arms  are  28.6,  65.0,  and  6.4  5  for 
heavy  guns  9,  80,  11;  for  torpedos  and 
shells,  55,  45,  0. 

Emmensite.  —  Emmensite  is  made  by  fus- 
ing very  pure  picric  acid,  and  dissolving 
in  it  sodium  nitrate  and  ammonia  nitrate. 
It  has  been  used  in  mining  with  excellent 
results. 

Several  other  powders  of  this  group  have 
been  proposed  (Abel's,  Brug&re's,  Fon- 
taine's, Borlinetto's)  but  none  of  them  has 
proven  of  practical  value. 


96 
3. — NITRON APHTHALENE  MIXTURES. 

Containing  no  other  nitre-compound  and  no 
organic  nitrate. 

All  the  nitronaphthalenes  form  explo- 
sives when  mixed  with  oxydising  agents. 

Volney  Powders. — Volney  powders  are 
mixtures  o£  nitronaphthalene  with  potas- 
sium nitrate  and  sulphur,  prepared  like 
ordinary  gunpowder.  The  two  principal 
varieties  are: 

No.  1.         No.  2. 

Mononitronaphthalene,  1  part. 
Tetranitronapthalene,   -  2.18  parts. 

Potassium  nitrate,     3.30   "     0.19      " 
Sulphur,-     -          -     0.51    "     0.16      " 
They  are  insensitive  to  friction  or  heat, 
and  require  a  powerful  detonator. 

Favier  Powders. — Favier  Powders,  Am- 
monites or  Nitramites,  are  mixtures  of  ni- 
tronaphthalenes, with  ammonium  nitrate, 
and  are  manufactured  at  Saint-Denis, 
France.  The  ammonium  nitrate  is  first 
dried  by  passing  it  on  an  archimedes  screw 
through  a  trough  warmed  by  steam;  it  is 
then  pressed,  and  sprinkled  with  melted  ni- 


97 

tronaphthalene,  and  the  roll  thus  formed  is 
granulated,  the  coarser  grains  being  mould- 
ed warm  into  hollow  cartridges  and  covered 
with  paraffin,  while  the  smaller  are  packed 
in  the  core;  the  detonator  is  then  insert- 
ed and  the  whole  covered  with  paraffin 
paper.  The  principal  objection  to  these 
powders  is  the  hygroscopic  character  of 
the  ammonium  nitrate. 

The  best  variety  consists  of  87.5  parts 
ammonium  nitrate  and  12.5  parts  dinitro- 
naphthalene. 

Grisoutine  Eoche. — Grisoutine  Roche,  one 
of  the  four  mixtures  now  principally  em- 
ployed in  mining  operations  in  France, 
contains  dinitronaphthalene  ( 9.5  parts ) 
and  ammonium  nitrate  (90.5  parts). 


4. — NITROGLYCERINE  MIXTURES. 

Containing  no  nitro-compound  and  no  other 
organic  nitrate, 

DYNAMITES. 

The   object  in   view   in   making   nitro- 
glycerine mixtures  is  to  overcome  the  dis- 


98 

advantages  of  the  liquid  state  of  this  ex- 
plosive compound,  and  to  utilize  the  excess 
of  oxygen  it  contains.  They  are  called 
Dynamites  as  a  class,  and  the  base  (or  por- 
ous solids  for  absorbing  the  liquid)  may  be 
either  inert  or  active. 

An  inert  base  acts  purely  mechanically, 
absorbing  the  liquid  nitroglycerine  and 
converting  it  into  a  solid  mass,  whereas 
an  active  base  takes  part  chemically  in 
the  explosion,  besides  acting  as  a  mechan- 
ical absorbent.  The  effect  of  the  inert 
base  is  to  render  the  nitroglycerine  less 
sensitive,  but  it  also  diminishes  its  ex- 
plosive force.  Advantage  is  taken  of  this 
latter  fact  to  make  dynamites  of  various 
grades,  by  varying  the  amount  of  nitrogly- 
cerine. 

However,  there  is  a  minimum  limit  to 
this,  for  a  dynamite  with  an  inert  base 
cannot  be  exploded  when  the  percentage 
of  nitroglycerine  falls  below  30.  In  order 
to  make  dynamites  of  lower  grade,  a  low 
explosive  mixture  is  used  as  the  absorb- 
ent, in  which  case  the  percentage  of  nitro- 
glycerine may  be  brought  as  low  as  5. 


99 


To  utilize  the  excess  of  oxygen  present, 
some  oxidizable  substance  ( usually  a  form 
of  carbon )  is  added. 

Finally,  to  convert  the  liquid  explosive 
into  a  solid  mass,  and  at  the  same  time  in- 
crease its  explosive  power  above  that  of 
dynamite  with  an  inert  base,  a  low  explo- 
sive base  is  used;  and  to  increase  its 
explosive  power  above  that  of  nitroglycerine 
itself,  a  high  explosive  base  is  used :  in  the 
former  the  detonation  of  the  nitroglycerine 
causes  the*  detonation  of  the  low  explosive 
mixture  with  increased  effect,  and  in  the 
latter  the  high  explosive  is,  of  course, 
detonated,  and  thus  causes  the  great  power 
of  such  a  mixture.  The  members  of  this 
last  group  are  not  usually  called  dynamites, 
and  are  here  placed  in  separate  classes 
depending  on  the  high  explosive  used  as  a 
base. 

Dynamite  No.  1. — Dynamite  No.  1,  a 
dynamite  with  an  inert  base,  consists  of  a 
mixture  of  25  parts  of  Kieselguhr,  (a  sil- 
iceous earth,  composed  mainly  of  the 
shells  of  diatoms)  and  75  parts  of  nitro- 
glycerine. 


100 

The  Kieselguhr  is  first  calcined  in  a  re- 
verberatory  furnace,  then  crushed  between 
rollers,  passed  through  fine  seives,  dried, 
packed  in  bags  and  stored  in  a  dry  place; 
when  required  for  use  it  is  weighed  out 
in  proper  quantity,  placed  in  lead-lined 
tanks,  and  the  proper  amount  of  nitro- 
glycerine poured  over  it;  the  ingredients 
are  thoroughly  mixed  by  hand,  the  mass 
being  finally  rubbed  through  sieves. 

For  blasting,  the  dynamite  is  made  into 
cylindrical  cartridges,  %  to  1  inch  in  di- 
ameter, 2  to  8  inches  long,  in  a  press,  and 
these  cartridges  are  wrapped  in  paraffined 
paper  or  in  parchment  paper.  For  mili- 
tary purposes,  dynamite  is  packed  in 
water-proof  metallic  cases,  or  in  rubber 
bags. 

Dynamite  is  a  granular,  plastic  sub- 
stance, which  may  explode  at  180°  C.;  it 
freezes  at  4°  C.,  and  can  then  be  detona- 
ted only  with  great  difficulty.  When 
heated,  or  when  in  a  state  of  decomposi- 
tion, it  becomes  very  sensitive  to  shock, 
although  generally  quite  stable  and  less 
sensitive  than  nitroglycerine. 


101 

Dynamite  No.  1  is  used  for  charging 
torpedoes  and  for  blasting.  It  is  the  stand- 
ard high  explosive  used  by  the  U.  S. 
Engineers. 

Giant  Powder  No.  1. — Giant  Powder  No  1, 
another  dynamite  with  an  inert  base,  but 
with  a  small  quantity  of  deterrent  added, 
is  composed  of  75  parts  nitroglycerine, 
24.5  Kieselguhr,  0.5  sodium  carbonate. 

Wetter dynam ite. — Wetterdynamite,  simi- 
lar in  character,  but  with  a  much  larger 
quantity  of  deterrent,  is  an  explosive 
which  has  been  found  by  recent  ex- 
periments in  Austria  to  be  very  safe  for 
use  in  coal  mines,  as  it  is  little  apt  to  fire 
either  the  explosive  mixture  of  marsh  gas 
and  air,  or  the  finely  divided  coal  dust  dis- 
seminated through  the  air  in  the  mine. 

The  best  composition  is : 

.    Nitroglycerine  -        52  parts. 

Kieselguhr,  -    14       " 

Sodium  carbonate  crystals,    34       " 

Grisoutine. — Grisoutine,  one  of  the  mix- 
tures now  chiefly  employed  in  mining 
operations  in  France,  contains  ammonium 


102 

nitrate  (60  parts)  and  dynamite  No.  1  (40 
parts). 

Nobel  Ardeer  Powder. — Nobel  Ardeer 
Powder  consists  of  32  parts  of  nitroglycer- 
ine, 13  parts  of  Kieselguhr,  49  of  magne- 
sium sulphate,  5  parts  of  potassium  nitrate, 
0.5  parts  of  ammonium  carbonate,  and  0.5 
parts  calcium  carbonate. 

Carbodynamite. — Carbodynamite,  a  dyna- 
mite with  an  active  base  that  is  merely 
oxydisible,  with  a  view  to  utilizing  the 
axcess  of  oxygen  in  the  nitroglycerine, 
consists  of  nitroglycerine  (90  parts)  and 
carbonized  cork  (10  parts),  with  1.5  per 
cent,  of  ammonium  carbonate  added  to 
the  mixture.  It  is  a  black,  friable  solid, 
which,  when  used  under  water  does  not 
permit  the  nitroglycerine  to  exude.  Its 
explosion  is  thus  represented: 

2  C3H8  03  (NOi),  +  C  =  5HtO  +  6 

C  02  +  C  O  +  3  N2. 

Dynamite  No.  2. — Dynamite  No.  2,  a  dy- 
namite with  a  low  explosive  mixture  as  a 
base,  consists  of  nitroglycerine  (18  parts), 
potassium  nitrate  (71  parts),  charcoal  (10 


103 

parts)  and  paraffin  (1  part).      It  is  a  much 
milder  dynamite  than  No.  1. 

Dualin. — Dualin,  another  dynamite  with 
a  low  explosive  base,  is  composed  of  nitro- 
glycerine, potassium  nitrate  and  sawdust 
(50  :  20  :  30). 

Giant  Powder  No.  2. — Giant  powder  No. 
2,  of  similar  character,  contains  : 
Nitroglycerine,  40  parts.      Sodium  nitrate 
40  parts.     Kieselguhr,  8  parts.      Sulphur, 
6  parts.  «  Resin,  6  parts. 

Vulcan  Powder. — Vulcan  powder  is  al- 
so a  dynamite  of  low  explosive  base: 
nitroglycerine  30  parts,  sodium  nitrate 
52.5  parts,  charcoal  10.5  parts,  sulphur  7 
parts. 

Atlas  A  Powder. — Atlas  A  Powder  is 
composed  of  nitroglycerine  (75  parts),  so- 
dium nitrate  (2  parts),  magnesium  car- 
bonate (2  parts)  and  wood-fibre  (21  parts). 

Carbonite.  —  Carbonite,  or  Kohlencarbo- 
nit,  for  colliery  purposes,  is  composed  of : 

Nitroglycerine,  25.0. 

Potassium  nitrate,  34.0. 

Rye  flour,  38.5. 

Barium  nitrate,  1.0. 


104 

Oak  bark  powder ,  1.0. 

Sodium  carbonate,  0.5. 

In  England  it  has  been  found  relatively 
one  of  the  safest  explosives  for  use  in  coal 
mines:  900  grams  was  the  maximum 
charge  required  to  explode  a  test  mixture 
of  marsh  gas  and  air,  while  gelatine  dyna- 
mite required  only  30,  and  Cologne-Rott- 
weiler 500.  Its  force,  compared  with  gela- 
tine dynamite,  is  0.405  :  1. 

Vigorite. — -Vigorite,  manufactured  by 
the  California  Vigorite  Powder  Company, 
is  a  dynamite  with  a  low  explosive  (chlor- 
ate mixture)  base,  of  the  following  com- 
position : 

Nitroglycerine,  30. 

Potassium  chlorate,  49. 

Magnesium  carbonate,  5. 

Potassium  nitrate,    7. 

Wood  pulp,  9. 

Hercules  Powder. — Hercules  powder  is 
very  similar: 

Nitroglycerine,  40. 

Potassium  chlorate,  3.34. 

Magnesium  carbonate,  10. 

Potassium  nitrate,  31. 


105 

Sugar,  15.66. 

Other  powders  of  this  section  are  Aetnar 
Atlas,  Judson,  Rendrock,  American  Safety, 
Stonite,  Horsley,  Hecla,  etc. 


5. — NITROGLYCERINE  AND  NITROBENZENE 
MIXTURES. 

Containing  no  other  nitro-compound  or  organic 
nitrate. 

There  is  but  one  mixture  belonging  to 
this  section  that  has  attained  any  impor- 
tance, and  the  principle  involved  in  its 
preparation  is  that  nitrobenzene  lowers- 
the  freezing  point  of  nitroglycerine,  and 
acts  as  a  deterrent,  retarding  explosion. 

Castellanos  Powder. — Castellanos  Pow- 
der, in  one  of  its  forms,  consists  of  nitro- 
glycerine with  nitrobenzene  (to  render  it- 
less  liable  to  freeze  and  slower  in  explo- 
sion), fibrous  material,  and  pulverized 
Kieselguhr. 


106 

6. — NITROGLYCERINE  AND  PICRATE 
MIXTURES. 

Containing  no  other  nitro-compound  or  organic 
nitrate. 

The  principle  involved  in  such  mixtures 
is  merely  that  o£  dynamites  with  high  ex- 
plosive base. 

Castellanos  Powder. — Castellanos  Powder 
in  one  of  its  forms  consists  of: 

Nitroglycerine,    40     Sodium  nitrate,  25 
Picrate,      -     -     10     Sulphur,     -  5 

Insoluble  salt,  10  Carbon,  -  -  10 
The  insoluble  salt  may  be  an  insoluble 
silicate,  carbonate  or  oxalate,  etc.,  or  gener- 
ally one  which  does  not  undergo  energetic 
chemical  reaction  with  nitroglycerine  or 
carbon,  its  purpose  being  to  render  the  ex- 
plosive safer. 

7. — GUNCOTTON  MIXTURES. 

Containing  no  other  organic  nitrate  and  no 
nitro-compound. 

The  principles  involved  in  these  mix- 
tures are: 


107 

( 1 )  Certain   substances    (  urea,    resin, 
paraffin,  aurine,  humus,  etc. )  diminish  the 
sensibility  to  shock  and  retard  the  rate  of 
combustion. 

( 2 )  Since  the  supply  of  oxygen  is  de- 
ficient, the  addition  of  nitrates  is  advan- 
tageous. 

Maxim -Schupphaus  Powder.  —  Maxim - 
Schiipphaus  Smokeless  Powder,  in  one  of 
its  forms,  consists  of  guncotton,  80  parts  j 
soluble  nitrocotton  (gelatine  pyroxylin), 
19.5  parts  ;  urea,  0.5  parts.  It  is  manufac- 
tured by  E.  I.  Du  Pont  de  Nemours  &  Co., 
Wilmington,  Delaware. 

Swiss  Normal  Powder.  —  Swiss  Normal 
Powder,  the  smokeless  powder  which  has 
been  adopted  by  the  Swiss  army,  is  manu- 
factured in  Sweden,  and  consists  of  96.21 
parts  guncotton,  1.80  soluble  nitrocellulose, 
1.99  resin.  It  is  light  yellow  in  color,  very 
stable,  unaffected  by  moisture,  insenitive 
to  shock  and  without  injurious  effect  on 
the  gun. 

Poudre  B. — Poudre  B,  or  Vielle's  Pow- 
der, is  the  smokeless  powder  used  in  the 
French  Lebel  rifle,  and  consists  of  68.21 


108 

parts  guncotton,  29.79  parts  soluble  nitro- 
cellulose, and  2  parts  paraffin,  the  mix- 
ture being  rolled  into  sheets,  which  are 
cut  into  little  squares.  It  has  the  consis- 
tency of  rubber,  is  pale  yellow  in  color 
and  translucent,  and  gives  a  high  initial 
Telocity  with  a  low  pressure. 

Potentite. — Potentite  consists  of  a  mix- 
ture of  guncotton  ( 59.5  parts ),  and  potas- 
sium nitrate  (41.5  parts).  Explosion  re- 
action : 

C12H1404(N03)6  +  4KN03  =  7H2 
O  +  10  C  02  +  5  N2  +  2  K2  C  03  +  O. 

Sevran  lAvry  Explosive. — Sevran  Livry 
Explosive  contains  tetranitrocellulose  (15 
parts )  and  ammonium  nitrate  ( 85  parts ). 
It  is  one  of  the  four  mixtures  now  main- 
ly employed  in  mining  operations  in 
France. 

Tonite. — Tonite,  or  Cotton  Powder  No.  1, 
an  explosive  manufactured  by  the  Tonite 
Powder  Company  of  San  Francisco,  Cali- 
fornia, consists  of  52.5  parts  pulverulent 
guncotton  and  47.5  parts  barium  nitrate. 

It  is  a  white,  dense  solid,  not  sensitive 


109 

to  shock,  and  requiring  an  exceptionally 
strong  detonator. 

C12  H14  0,  (N  03).  +  2  Ba  (N03)a  = 
7  H2  O  +  10  C  O2  +  O  +  2  B  a  C  O3  + 
5N2. 

Cotton  Pcnvder  No.  2. — Cotton  Powder 
No.  2  is  composed  of  guncotton,  a  nitrate 
or  mixture  of  nitrates,  and  charcoal. 

Troisdorf  Powder.  —  Troisdorf  Powder, 
the  smokeless  powder  adopted  by  the  Ger- 
man army,  is  composed  of  gelatinized 
nitrocellulose  and  metallic  nitrates,  the 
mixture  being  rolled  into  sheets  and  then 
granulated. 

U.  S.  Naval  Smokeless  Powder.  —  The 
smokeless  powder  adopted  by  the  U.  S. 
Navy  consists  of  80  parts  soluble  and  in- 
soluble nitrocellulose  (average  12.75  per 
cent,  nitrogen),  15  parts  barium  nitrate,  4 
parts  potassium  nitrate,  1  part  calcium  ni- 
trate. The  solvent  used  in  making  the 
powder  is  composed  of  2  parts  ethylic  ether 
( sp.  gr.  0.72 )  and  1  part  ethyl  alcohol  (  95 
per  cent). 

The  soluble  and  the  insoluble  nitrocellu- 


110 

loses  ( dried  separately  and  sifted )  are 
mixed  with  the  calcium  carbonate  ( also 
dried ),  and  this  mixture  is  added  ( with 
constant  stirring)  to  the  solution  of  the 
nitrates  in  hot  water.  The  pasty  mass  is 
dried  at  not  over  48°  C.,  and  placed  in  the 
kneading-machine,  where  the  ether  and 
alcohol  mixture  is  added,  and  the  whole 
kneaded  j  after  which  it  is  pressed,  first 
into  cylinders,  then  into  ribbons,  which,  are 
cut  into  short  lengths,  the  dimensions  of 
the  leaflets  varying  with  the  caliber  of  the 
gun  in  which  they  are  to  be  used,  and 
carefully  dried. 

Poudre  B  N. — Poudre  B  N  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  Poudre  B,  and  consists .  of  29.13 
parts  insoluble  nitrocellulose,  41.31  parts 
soluble  nitrocellulose,  19  parts  barium  ni- 
trate, 8  parts  potassium  nitrate  and  2  parts 
sodium  carbonate. 

Schultze  Powder. — Schultze  Powder,  the 
type  of  the  smokeless  sporting  powders, 
is  composed  (according  to  the  analyses 
made  by  Professor  -Munroe)  of  insoluble  ni- 
trocellulose (32.66  parts),  solluble  nitrocel- 
lulose (27.71  parts),  cellulose  (1.63  parts), 


barium  nitrate  (27.62  parts ),  sodium   ni- 
trate (2.47  parts),  paraffin  (4.20  parts). 

8. — GUNCOTTON  AND  AZO-COMPOUND 
MIXTURES. 

The  principle  involved  in  these  mixtures 
is  merely  the  deterrent  effect  of  the  azo- 
compound,  combined  with  the  physical 
form  given  to  the  resulting  explosive. 

Rifleite. — Rifleite  is  a  smokeless  powder, 
made  by  the  Smokeless  Powder  Company, 
Barwick,  Herts,  England,  for  use  in  the 
small  caliber  Lee-Metford  Rifle.  It  is 
composed  of  74.6  parts  guncotton,  22.48 
parts  soluble  nitrocellulose,  and  2.52  parts 
phenyl  amidoazobenzene, 

C6H5-N  =  N-C6H4(NH,). 

It  is  a  yellowish  colored  flake  powder. 

9. — GUNCOTTON  AND  NITROBENZENE 
MIXTURES. 

Containing  no  other  organic  nitrate  or  nitro- 
compound. 

The  principle  involved  in  these  mixtures 
is  the  gelatinizing  of  the  guncotton  by 


112 

means  of  the  nitrobenzene,  and  thus  put- 
ting it  in  a  physical  state  which  enables 
us  to  control  its  rate  of  combustion. 

Indurite. — Indurite,  a  smokeless  powder 
invented  by  Professor  C.  E.  Munroe,  is 
prepared  by  colloidizing  guncotton  (free 
from  soluble  nitrocellulose)  by  means  of 
nitrobenzene  :  one  part  of  guncotton  is 
dissolved  in  1  to  2  parts  of  nitrobenzene; 
the  paste  resulting  is  run  through  rollers 
and  granulated,  or  passed  through  dies 
and  made  into  threads,  and  the  powder  is 
then  subjected  to  the  action  of  steam, 
which  hardens  it. 

Cotton  Powder  No.  3. — Cotton  Powder 
No.  3  is  made  by  the  Tonite  Powder 
Company  of  San  Francisco,  and  consists  of 
purified  metadinitrobenzeiie,  purified  gun- 
cotton,  and  one  or  more  of  the  following : 
nitrate  of  potassium,  sodium  or  barium, 
and  chalk. 


113 

10.— GUNCOTTON  AND  PlCRATE  MIXTURES. 

Containing  no  other  organic  nitrate  or  nitro- 
compound. 

The  principle  involved  in  these  mixtures 
is  not  evident,  since  both  ingredients  are 
deficient  in  oxygen.  However,  from  pro- 
fessor Mendel6ef  s  point  of  view  the  ad- 
vantage is  with  the  mixture,  as  may  be 
seen  by  comparing  the  volumes  of  gases 
(measured  at  any  fixed  temperature  and 
pressure)  -from  1000  parts  by  weight  of 
the  explosive: 

Guncotton,    -  -  74.1 

Picric  acid,        -  -     76.4 

Melinite,  77.0 

Moreover,  the  fact  that  the  ingredients 

are  mixed  in  solution  insures  a  separation 

of  the  molecules  of  the  same  substances  to 

a  distance  greater  than  the  normal,  which 

may  be  sufficient,  perhaps,  to  account  for 

their  not  exploding  in  the  gun  when  used 

for  charging  shells. 

Melinite. — Melinite,  the  great  French  ex- 
plosive, was  originally  made  by  dissolving 
30  parts  of  guncotton  in  45  parts  acetone 


114 

(or  a  mixture  of  ether  and  alcohol  2:1), 
adding  70  parts  of  fused  and  pulverized 
picric  acid,  and  allowing  the  solvent  to 
evaporate.  Its  explosion  would  be  rep- 
resented by  the  reaction : 

C11H1404(NO,)6  +  6[OiH1(NOf)>0] 

=  16  H20  +  48  C  0  +12  N9. 
V     =77  0 

*     i  nnn *     I  •  W« 


1000 


Its  present  composition  is  not  known. 
It  is  a  yellow  crystalline  solid,  and  when 
used  in  shells  about  two-thirds  of  the 
space  is  first  filled  with  cresilite,  the  re- 
maining third  being  then  packed  with 
melinite. 

Lyddite. — Lyddite,  the  great  English 
explosive,  is  probably  similar  to  the  origi- 
nal melinite.  It  is  used  in  shells,  aud  is 
considered  a  safe  and  reliable  explosive. 
A  powder  fuse  will  not  detonate  it,  but 
many  metallic  oxides  and  nitrates,  when 
brought  in  contact  with  it  at  a  high  tem- 
perature will,  and  the  fuse  in  the  English 
service  probably  utilizes  this  principle. 


115 

11.—  GUNCOTTON  AND  NITROTOLUENE 
MIXTURES. 

Containing  no  other  organic  nitrate  or  nitro- 
compound. 

The  principle  of  these  mixtures  is  that 
the  nitrotoluene  acts  as  a  deterrent,  and 
also  so  modifies  the  physical  state  of  the 
guncotton  as  to  enable  us  to  regulate  and 
control  its  rate  of  explosion. 

Plastomenite.  —  The  only  nitrotoluene 
mixture  of  any  importance  is  the  new 
smokeless*  powder,  called  Toluol  Powder, 
or  Plastomenite. 

It  has  been  greatly  improved  in  the  past 
two  years,  and  as  manufactured  at  the 
Guttler  Factory  in  Reichenstein,  Germany, 
contains,  according  to  the  analysis  of  Doc- 
tor Gottig,  Professor  at  the  Eoyal  Artillery 
and  Engineer  School : 

Nitrated  -Toluene,  ^-trinitrotoluene  (1  : 
2  :  4  :  6),  C6  H,  (N  Ot)f  C  H3,  and  ortho- 
nitrotoluene,  C6  H*  (N  02)  C  H8  22.06 

Nitrocellulose  (partly  soluble,  12.33  % 
nitrogen),  C,,HM(N03)904,  -  67.48 

Barium  nitrate,       ...          9.76 


116 

Moisture,    -  -      0.90 

The  reaction  for  its  explosion  at  high 

pressure  is,  according  to  Professor  Gott'g, 

as  follows  : 


C  H3  +  4  B  a  (N  03)3  =  4  B  a  C  O3  +  67 
H2  O  +  73  C  O3  +  101  C  0  +  52  Nt  +  15 
CH4  +  9C  +  5H1. 

As  regards  residue  and  freedom  from 
smoke  the  new  powder  meets  all  require- 
ments 5  the  weight  and  volume  of  the 
charge  required  is  still  an  objection,  but 
this  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the 
advantageous  properties  of  the  explosive, 
namely,  its  strength,  stability  at  high  tem- 
peratures, and  resistance  to  the  action  of 
atmospheric  moisture,  safety  in  prepara- 
tion and  handling,  and  easy  inflammability 
in  the  gun. 

12.—  GUNCOTTON  AND  NITROGLYCERINE 
MIXTURES. 

The  guncotton  and  nitroglycerine  mix- 
tures are  among  the  most  important  and 
energetic  of  the  explosives. 


117 

The  principles  involved  in  their  manu- 
facture are: 

1.  Guncotton  has  a  deficiency  of  oxy- 
gen and  nitroglycerine  a  slight  excess,  so 
that  a  proper  mixture  would  appear  to  be 
advantageous. 

2.  Guncotton  is  solid  and  porous,  and 
nitroglycerine  is  liquid,  so  that  a  solid  mass 
results  from  their  mixture,  which  is  more 
convenient  to  handle  than  the  liquid  nitro- 
glycerine. 

3.  The  addition  of  camphor,  resin,  and 
similar  substances  causes  a  change  in  the 
cohesion  of  the  mass,  increasing  its  solidity 
and  elasticity,  so  that  a  much  larger  mass 
takes  up  the  initial  shock  in   explosion, 
hence  there  is  less  danger  of  a  local  sudden 
rise  of  temperature  (which  is  essential  for 
detonation),  and  the  explosive  is  therefore 
less  sensitive. 

4.  Certain  substances    (low   explosive 
mixtures,  etc.,)  moderate  the  force  of  ex- 
plosion of  these  high  explosives,  and  their 
admixture,    consequently,    enables   us   to 
make  explosives  of  various  grades  from 
the  same  ingredients. 


118 

Explosive  Gelatine. — Explosive  Gelatine, 
or  Blasting  Gelatine,  is  composed  of  nitro- 
cotton  (with  not  over  11  per  cent,  of  nitro- 
gen), carefully  dried,  mixed  with  nitro- 
glycerine, also  carefully  dried,  the  amount 
of  nitrocotton  varying  from  4  to  8  per  cent. ; 
after  kneading,  the  mixture  is  made  into 
cartridges  by  a  special  machine,  which 
forces  it  out- in  the  form  of  a  long  cylinder, 
the  latter  being  then  cut  into  proper 
lengths,  and  each  cartridge  wrapped  with 
paraffined  paper  or  parchment  paper. 

It  is  a  yellow,  translucent,  elastic  solid, 
practically  unaffected  by  water,  which 
when  not  confined  burns  but  does  not  ex- 
plode, but  when  confined  explodes  at  about 
204°  C.  It  is  less  liable  to  freeze  than  dy- 
namite, but  when  frozen  is  more  sensitive. 

Military  Gelatine. — Military  Gelatine  is 
an  explosive  gelatine  with  a  small  per 
centage  of  camphor  added. 

There  are  several  varities  : 

Austrian.      Italian. 

Nitroglycerine,     -  CO  92 

Soluble  guncotton,  -         -     10  8 

Camphor  (added),  4$  5$ 


119 

The  reactions  for  explosion  (assuming 
the  tetraiiitrate)  are : 

C12H1404(N03)4(HO),  +  18C3  H5 
(N  O3)s  =  53  H8  O  +  61  C  Oa  +  5  C  O  + 
29  Nf,  and 

Oi>H^Qft(N.O.)i(HO)l  +  22C3H5 
(N  03)s  =  63  Ht  O  +  75  C  O,  +  3  C  O  + 
35  N2. 

Evidently,  the  oxidation  in  the  second 
case  is  a  little  more  complete  than  in  the 
first. 

Military  gelatine  resembles  explosive 
gelatine  in  appearance  and  properties,  but 
is  much  less  sensitive. 

Cordite. — Cordite,  the  British  smokeless 
powder,  is  composed  of  58  parts  nitrogly- 
cerine, 37  parts  guncotton  and  5  parts 
vaseline. 

The  nitroglycerine  is  poured  over  the 
guncotton,  and  the  two  are  mixed  by  hand; 
the  resulting  mass,  which  looks  like  moist 
sugar,  is  placed  in  the  kneading  machines 
with  the  proper  amount  of  acetone  and 
incorporated;  the  vaseline  is  added  and  the 
incorporation  continued;  the  cordite  is  first 
pressed,  and  is  then  squeezed  through 


120 

dies,  and  issued  in  the  form  of  cords  of 
various  sizes,  which  are  cut  into  proper 
lengths. 

It  is  a  horny  substance,  which  cannot 
be  heated  for  any  length  of  time  above 
100°  F.  The  vaseline  acts  merely  to  re- 
strain the  violence  of  the  explosion,  and 
serves  to  produce  a  little  smoke,  which  acts 
as  a  lubricant  in  the  bore  of  the  gun. 

The  cords  burn  progressively  from  sur- 
face to  center,  so  that  the  rate  of  combus- 
tion can  be  regulated  by  the  size  of  the 
cord. 

Explosion  reaction: 

4C12HU04(N08)6  +  14C3H5(N03)3 
=  63  H2  O  +  61  C  O2  +  29  C  O  +  33  N2. 

W.-A.  Powder. — W.-A.  Powder  is  one  of 
the  smokeless  powders,  and  is  made  by  the 
American  Smokeless  Powder  Company ;  it 
<xmsists  of  the  highest  grade  of  guncotton 
mixed  with  purified  nitroglycerine  (the 
latter  dissolved  in  acetone  before  being 
added  to  the  guncotton),  to  which  nitrates 
and  an  organic  deterrent  are  added  j  it  is 
pressed  into  cords  similar  to  cordite. 

Ballistite. — Ballistite,  or  Filite,  the  Ital 


121 

ian  service  smokeless  powder,  is  made  by 
dissolving  diphenylamine,  N  H  (C6  H3)2,  in 
nitroglycerine,  and  mixing  the  liquid  with 
soluble  guncotton  (in  a  vessel  containing 
hot  water)  by  means  of  compressed  air; 
then  removing  the  water  by  centrifugal 
machines  and  absorbents,  and  passing  the 
mixture  repeatedly  between  heated  rollers; 
it  is  either  pressed  into  cords,  or  granulated 
in  cubes/ 

Equal  parts  of  guncotton  and  nitrogly- 
cerine are  used,  and  about  one  per  cent,  of 
diphenylamine. 

Maxim -Schitpphaus  Powder.  —  Maxim - 
Schiipphaus  smokeless  powder,  in  one  of 
its  forms,  consists  of: 

Mixed  nitrocottons,  -  90  parts. 

Nitroglycerine,      -  9      " 

Urea,    '  1      " 

It  is  made  by  mixing  in  a  kneading  ma- 
chine at  about  120°  F.,  80  Ibs.  of  insoluble 
guncotton  (with  13.3  per  cent,  nitrogen),  8 
Ibs.  of  soluble  guncotton  (gelatin-pyroxy- 
lin, with  12  per  cent,  nitrogen,  soluble  in 
nitroglycerine  below  180°  F.),  12  Ibs.  ni- 
troglycerine, 35  Ibs.  acetone,  and  1  Ib. 


122 

urea  (dissolved  in  methyl  alcohol).  The 
mealy  mass  is  then  rolled  into  sheets, 
pressed  out  in  the  form  of  multi-perfor- 
ated cylinders,  and  dried  in  a  vacuum. 

Peyton  Powder.  —  Peyton  Powder  is  a 
smokeless  powder,  manufactured  by  the 
California  Powder  Works,  and  consists  of 
a  gelatinized  mixture  of  nitroglycerine  (38 
per  cent.),  and  guncotton  (40  per  cent.), 
using  acetone  as  the  solvent  for  incorpora- 
tion, with  other  substances  added. 

Forcite. — Forcite,  or  Gelatine  Dynamite, 
is  composed  of  blasting  gelatine  (98  parts 
nitroglycerine  to  2  parts  nitrocotton)  and 
a  low  explosive  base  (sodium  nitrate  76, 
sulphur  3,  wood-tar  20,  wood  pulp  1). 

Ecrasite. — Ecrasite  is  an  explosive  man- 
ufactured at  the  Sierseh  dynamite  factory 
in  Pressburg,  Austria,  and  used  in  charg- 
ing shells.  It  is  composed  essentially  of 
blasting  gelatine  and  ammonium  picrate. 

There  are  many  other  smokeless  pow- 
ders included  in  this  section,  such  as  the 
Belgian  Wetteren  Powder  and  the  American 
Leonard  Powder,  but  they  illustrate  no  new 
principles. 


123 

III.  MIXTURES. 

CONTAINING  NO  NITRO-COMPOUNDS  OR 
ORGANIC  NITRATES. 

This  class  of  explosives,  the  earliest 
known,  and  the  simplest  from  a  mechanical 
point  of  view,  are  yet  the  most  complex 
from  a  chemical  point  of  view.  It  was 
very  natural,  in  the  early  state  of  chemical 
knowledge,  to  mix  together  mechanically 
the  commonest  combustibles,  charcoal  and 
sulphur,  with  the  best  known  solid  oxidiser, 
nitre,  to  obtain  the  first  explosive ;  but  it 
required  a  knowledge  of  structural  form- 
ulae to  understand  how  to  obtain  the  atoms 
of  combustibles  and  those  of  oxygen  ready 
mixed  in  the  molecule,  as  in  our  later  ex- 
plosives. 

In  all  mixtures  of  this  class  one  of  the 
ingredients  is  a  combustible  substance,  and 
another  contains  the  requisite  oxygen  for 
this  combustion  and  gives  it  up  readily. 

This  class  comprises  the  following 
groups : 

Nitrogen  Oxide  Group. 


124 

Nitrate  Group. 
Chlorate  Group. 
Fulminate  Group. 

1. — NITROGEN  OXIDE  GROUP. 

This,  the  simplest  group  of  this  class 
of  mixtures,  in  which  nitrogen  oxide  is 
the  oxidising  ingredient,  comprises  but 
one  explosive  of  any  importance. 

Panclastite.  —  Panclastite,  one  of  the 
Sprengel  class  of  explosives,  is  made  by 
mixing  ,3  volumes  of  liquid  nitrogen  te- 
troxide  with  2  volumes  of  liquid  carbon 
disulphide.  It  merely  burns  when  ignited 
but  may  be  exploded  by  means  of  a  deto- 
nator. 

3  N,  04  +  2  C  S2  =  2  C  02  +  4  S  0, 
+  3N2. 

Other  proportions  are  used  for  obtaining 
different  effects,  and  other  combustibles 
may  be  subtituted  for  the  carbon  disul- 
phide. 

2.— NITRATE  GROUP. 
The   nitrate   group   includes   all    those 


125 

mixtures  in  which  the  constituent  to  be 
oxidised  is  some  form  of  carbon,  and  the 
oxidising  constituent  is  a  nitrate. 

In  all  the  nitrates  used  in  these  mix- 
tures five-sixths  only  of  the  oxygen  present 
is  available  for  combustion. 

Black  Gunpowder. — Black  Gunpowder, 
the  oldest  of  all  our  explosives,  probably 
originated  in  the  far  East,  found  its  way 
to  Constantinople,  where  it  become  known 
as  Greek  fire,  and  was  introduced,  about 
1353,  in  Augsburg,  the  metropolis  then  of 
the  Alemannic  countries  in  Germany, 
where  it  was  improved  to  the  present  form 
of  gunpowder,  and  whence  a  knowledge 
of  its  composition  rapidly  spread  over 
Europe. 

Black  gunpowder  is  a  mixture  of  75 
parts  of  potassium  nitrate,  15  parts  of 
charcoal  and  10  pounds  of  sulphur.  Re- 
garding the  charcoal  as  pure  carbon  (which 
is,  of  course,  not  strictly  true,  since  char- 
coal always  has  a  considerable  percentage 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen),  this  composition 
would  be  represented  by  the  formula: 
19  K  NO8  +32C  +  8S. 


126 

But,  if  the  amount  of  carbon  actually 
present  in  the  charcoal  be  taken  ( omitting 
the  hydrogen  and  oxygen),  its  composi- 
tion is : 

560KNO8  +  742C  +  231S. 

The  purpose  of  the  charcoal  is  to  fur- 
nish the  combustible,  mainly  carbon,  and 
by  oxidation  to  produce  a  gas  and  evolve 
heat;  the  nitre  furnishes  the  oxygen  for 
the  oxidation  of  the  carbon  and  part  of 
the  sulphur,  and  at  the  same  time  adds  to 
the  heat  by  furnishing  a  base  ( K2  O )  for 
part  of  the  carbon  dioxide  and  sulphur 
trioxide  to  combine  with,  resulting,  how- 
ever, in  a  loss  of  gas;  the  object  of  adding 
sulphur  is  to  lower  the  temperature  of 
ignition  of  the  mixture  and  to  accelerate 
the  combustion,  but  it  also  incidentally 
raises  the  temperature  by  combination 
with  potassium  and  oxygen,  and  increases 
the  volume  of  gas  indirectly  by  combining 
with  a  part  of  the  potassium,  which  would 
otherwise  combine  with  carbon  dioxide 
and  thereby  diminish  the  volume  of  gas. 

For  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  the 
nitre  is  carefully  refined  by  solution,  filtra- 


127 

tion,  crystallization  and  washing ;  the  sul- 
phur is  purified  by  distillation,  distilled  sul- 
phur, the  electronegative  variety,  being 
the  only  kind  suitable  for  making  gun- 
powder ;  the  charcoal  is  obtained  from 
selected  willow,  alder  or  black  dogwood 
by  distillation  at  temperatures  between 
360°  and  520°  C. 

The  ingredients,  in  proper  proportions, 
are  placed  in  the  mixing  machine,  where 
they  are  mixed  by  means  of  a  revolving 
drum  with  fork-shaped  arms  over  its  sur- 
face ;  and  the  mixture  is  passed  through  a 
sieve  into  a  hopper,  and  collected  in  bags. 
It  is  then  transferred  to  the  incorporating 
mill  in  50  pound  charges,  spread  evenly 
over  the  bed  with  a  wooden  rake,  and  about 
2  pints  of  water  are  added  (from  time  to 
time  more  water  is  added) ;  the  ingredients 
are  thoroughly  incorporated  here  by  means 
of  two  cylindrical  edge-runners.  The  mill 
cake  thus  formed  is  broken  up  by  passing 
it  in  succession  between  two  pairs  of  rol- 
lers, one  above  the  other,  through  which 
it  falls  into  boxes,  and  is  conveyed  thence 
to  the  press,  where  it  is  pressed  into  sheets. 


128 

These  sheets  are  taken  to  the  granulating 
machine,  which  has  several  pairs  of  rollers 
(placed  obliquely  one  above  the  other), 
fitted  with  teeth  of  varying  sizes  and  sep- 
arated by  screens ;  the  press-cake  passes 
through  the  first  pair  of  rollers  to  the  first 
screen,  the  finer  material  passing  through 
and  being  sifted  by  the  finer  screens  be- 
low, the  coarser  material  passing  to  the 
next  set  of  rollers,  and  so  on.  The  differ- 
ent sizes  of  grain  are  thus  collected  sepa- 
rately below. 

The  granulated  powder  is  next  passed 
through  the  dusting  reels,  where  it  is  re- 
volved in  horizontal  or  slightly  inclined 
cylindrical  drums  of  dusting  cloth  (18  to 
56  meshes  to  the  inch).  The  clean  powder 
is  then  glazed  (with  or  without  the  addition 
of  a  little  graphite)  in  horizontal  revolving 
glazing  barrels,  after  which  it  is  again 
dusted.  The  powder  is  then  dried  on 
trays  or  frames  with  canvas  bottoms, 
placed  on  racks  in  a  room  kept  at  120° 
to  145°  F.,  and  is  finished  by  running  it 
again  in  a  dusting  reel. 
.Common  gunpowder  is  of  uniform  dark 


129 

gray  color,  and  when  granulated  its  grains 
are  hard  and  angular,  do  not  soil  the  fin- 
gers, and  are  free  from  dust.  Its  density 
varies  from  1.50  to  1.85.  When  exposed 
to  moist  air  it  absorbs  considerable  moist- 
ure, which  not  only  interferes  directly  with 
its  ballistic  qualities,  but  also  causes  the 
gunpowder  to  deteriorate  by  dissolving  a 
portion  of  the  nitre,  the  latter  recrystalliz- 
ing  on  the  grains  and  being  thus  removed 
from  intimate  mixture  with  sulphur  and 
charcoal.  Immersion  in  water  dissolves 
the  nitre  and  destroys  the  powder. 

Since,  in  all  explosive  mixtures  which 
are  aggregated  into  grains,  the  combustion 
takes  place  in  successive  layers  over  the 
surface  (provided  the  density  be  sufficient 
to  prevent  the  grains  from  being  disinte- 
grated), the  rate  of  combustion  of  a  given 
charge  can  be  regulated  by  varying  the 
size  of  the  grain,  the  powders  of  larger 
grain  being  the  slower  in  burning.  More- 
over, increase  of  density  will  also  diminish 
rate  of  burning,  since  the  heated  gases- 
which  ignite  the  successive  layers  pene- 
trate less  easily.  When  a  charge  of  fine 


130 

grain  powder  is  ignited,  the  time  of  com- 
bustion from  surface  to  center  of  each 
grain  is  very  short,  so  that  most  of  the 
gas  is  given  off  at  once,  resulting  in  great 
initial  pressure  5  but,  when  coarse  grain 
powder  is  ignited,  a  longer  time  is  required 
for  the  combustion  of  each  grain,  and  the 
gases  are  given  off  more  gradually,  result- 
ing in  a  more  moderate  initial  pressure. 
On  this  principle  the  various  large  grained 
powders,  mammoth,  hexagonal  and  pebble, 
were  prepared. 

But,  since  the  surface  of  the  grain  is 
gradually  diminished  during  this  combus- 
tion, the  quantity  of  gas  given  off  in  a 
given  time  grows  smaller  and  smaller,  al- 
though (in  a  gun)  the  space  in  which  it 
expands  grows  larger  and  larger  as  the 
projectile  moves  out,  and  therefore  the 
pressure  on  the  latter  is  diminishing  all 
the  time  it  is  in  the  bore.  Now,  by  perfor- 
ating the  powder  grains  with  cylindrical 
channels,  so  that  on  ignition  the  grain  is 
consumed  inside  and  out  at  the  same  time, 
the  surface  of  combustion  gradually  in- 
creases, hence,  the  volume  of  gases  given 


131 

off  increases,  and  therefore  (without  ex- 
ceeding the  maximum  pressure  at  the 
beginning)  the  pressure  is  kept  up  well 
during  the  entire  time  the  projectile  is  in 
the  bore.  This  is  the  principle  on  which 
the  perforated  prismatic  and  other  perfor- 
ated powders  are  made. 

Gunpowder  explodes  at  316°  C.,  and 
can  be  exploded  by  percussion.  When 
mixed  with  high  explosives  it  can  also  be 
detonated. 

In  its  explosion  there  are  two  stages  : 

First  Stage.  —  Military  gunpowder  (ne- 
glecting the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  the 
charcoal  )  may  be  represented  by  the  for- 
mula : 

560KNO3  +  742C  +  231S. 

The  first  stage  in  its  explosion  is  thus 
represented: 

560  K  N  O3  +  455  C  +  175  S  =  105  Kt 
C  O3  +  175  K2  S  O4  +  315  C  O,  +  35  C  O 


In  this  first  stage  all  the  nitre,  part  of 
the  carbon  and  part  of  the  sulphur  react, 
producing,  besides  the  gases,  potassium 
sulphate  and  potassium  carbonate.  The 


132 

relative  amounts  of  heat  produced  by  the 
formation  of  the  potassium  carbon  ate,  the 
potassium  sulphate,  and  the  carbon  dioxide 
present,  respectively,  are  1 :  2  : 1.  All  the 
oxygen  of  the  charcoal  and  part  of  the  hy- 
drogen are  given  off  in  the  form  of  water ; 
the  rest  of  the  hydrogen  is  given  off  free, 
or  unites  with  carbon,  sulphur  and  nitro- 
gen, respectively,  producing  marsh  gas, 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  ammonia,  but 
these  secondary  products  do  not  amount 
to  2  per  cent,  of  the  total  products. 

Second  Stage.  —  The  remainder  of  the 
carbon  of  the  gunpowder  (742  —  455  = 
287  C)  reacts  on  a  part  of  the  potassium 
sulphate  formed  in  the  first  stage : 

287  C  +  164  K2  S  04  =  82  K,  C  O8  + 
82  K2  S2  +  205  C  02  ;  and  the  remainder 
of  the  sulphur  of  the  powder  (231  —  175 
=  56  S)  reacts  on  a  part  of  the  potassium 
carbonate  formed  in  the  first  stage: 

56  S  +  32  Ka  C  O3  =  8  K2  S  O4  +  24 
K2  Sa  +  32  C  Or 

In  this  second  stage  the  volume  of  gas 
formed  during  the  first  stage  is  increased, 
but  the  temperature  is  lowered,  because 


133 

heat  is  absorbed.  A  portion  of  the  car- 
bon monoxide  in  the  products  is  formed 
during  this  stage  by  the  action  of  free 
carbon  or  potassium  disulphide  on  carbon 
dioxide. 

The  following  reaction  shows  the  rela- 
tion between  the  original  powder  and  the 
final  products : 

560  K  N  O3  +  742  C  +  231  S  =  (105 
—  32  +  82)  K2  C  03  +  (175  —  164  -f  8) 
K8  S  04  +  (82  +  24)  K2  S2  +  (315  +  205 
+  32)  C  Ot  +  35  C  O  +  280  N2  =  155  K, 
C  O3  -f  19  K2  S  O4  +  106  K2  S,  +  552  C 
0,  +  35  C  0  +  280  Ns. 

V1000  =  23.78. 

Broicn  Powder. — Brown  or  Cocoa  Pow- 
der is  composed  of  79  parts  of  nitre,  18 
parts  of  charcoal  and  3  parts  of  sulphur. 
The  charcoal  is  prepared  from  straw  car- 
bonized in  a  special  manner,  so  that  its 
composition  by  analysis  differs  consider- 
ably from  that  used  in  black  gunpowder : 

Charcoal  for 


134 

Brown  Powder.          Black  Powder. 
Professor  Munroe.     Professor  Bloxam. 
Carbon      -        48.33  85.80 

Hydrogen-          5.57  3.13 

Oxygen  44.77  9.47 

Ash  -  1.33  1.60 

The  finished  powder  is  in  hexagonal 
prisms  perforated  axially. 

It  is  remarkable  for  giving  high  veloci- 
ties with  low  pressures.  The  explanation 
of  this  is  the  low  percentage  of  sulphur, 
the  easy  inflammability  of  the  charcoal, 
the  great  heat  evolved,  and  dissociation. 
In  form,  size  and  density  of  grain  it  does 
not  differ  materially  from  the  best  forms 
of  black  powder.  The  low  percentage  of 
sulphur  raises  its  igniting  point  (as  com- 
pared with  black  powder),  so  that  the 
action  is  comparatively  slow  at  first,  each 
particle  requiring  a  slightly  higher  tem- 
perature for  ignition  than  in  case  of  black 
powder ;  when  the  temperature,  however, 
reaches  a  certain  point,  and  the  powder 
begins  to  burn  well,  the  easy  inflamma- 
bility of  the  charcoal  comes  into  play  (es- 
pecially as  the  grains  become  broken  up), 


135 

and  gas  is  given  off  more  rapidly  than  in 
case  of  black  powder,  but  by  this  time  it 
has  also  more  space  to  expand  into,  so  that 
the  pressure  on  the  walls  of  the  gun  is  not 
too  great ;  the  greater  heat  evolved  (which 
comes  into  play  about  the  same  time  that 
the  rapid  combustion  does,  of  course)  ex- 
pands the  gases  more  and  so  tends  to  give 
greater  pressure  when  the  latter  is  most 
needed,  i.  e.,  as  the  projectile  moves  along 
the  bore' and  the  space  behind  it  becomes 
greater ;  finally,  underburnt  charcoal  (and 
therefore  the  powder  made  from  it)  con- 
tains carbohydrates,  and  these  are  known 
to  undergo  dissociation  very  readily,  so 
that  as  the  temperature  rises  decomposi- 
tion goes  on,  with  liberation  of  gas,  until 
the  pressure  reaches  a  certain  point  for  the 
then  temperature,  when  it  will  cease;  now, 
if  the  pressure  goes  on  increasing,  due  to 
the  continued  rapid  liberation  of  gases, 
while  the  temperature  does  not  increase 
sufficiently  to  prevent  it,  recombination 
will  take  place,  with  diminution  of  gaseous 
matter,  thus  preventing  a  too  rapid  rise 
of  pressure ;  as  the  temperature  continues 


136 

to  rise,  however,  decomposition  again  com- 
mences and  continues  until  the  pressure 
of  the  liberated  gas  reaches  another  point 
(corresponding  to  this  higher  temperature), 
when  it  will  again  cease,  and  so  on.  Dis- 
sociation, therefore,  acts  like  an  automatic 
pressure  regulator  :  when  the  pressure 
tends  to  get  great  recombination  begins 
diminishing  the  gases,  and  preventing  a 
great  increase  of  pressure  j  when  the  pres- 
sure tends  to  fall  decomposition  goes  on, 
increasing  the  gases,  and  thus  increasing 
the  pressure  again. 

The  dissociation  of  water  vapor  into 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  probably  plays  no 
part  whatever  in  these  reactions,  since 
there  are  so  many  other  substances  present 
that  are  decomposed  so  much  more  easily 
than  this  very  stable  and  strong  compound, 
and  whose  action  would  come  into  play 
long  before  the  water  vapor  could  possibly 
be  affected;  moreover,  these  more  easily 
decomposable  substances  (carbohydrates, 
etc.)  require  no  assumptions  (as  does  the 
dissociation  of  water  vapor)  as  to  the  actual 
temperature  of  the  gases  in  the  bore  of  the 


137 

gun,  or  the  dissociation  temperature  of 
water  vapor  under  the  pressure  existing, 
both  of  which  are  still  matters  of  more  or 
less  doubt. 

Du  Pont  Brown  Powder.  —  Du  Pont  Brown 
Powder  is  composed  of: 

Nitre,  78  parts. 

Sulphur,  -       3      " 

Carbohydrates,  4      " 

Baked  Wood,  12      " 

In  this  powder  the  charcoal  is  specially 
prepared  so  as  to  have  the  proper  chemical 
composition  and  the  proper  physical  text- 
ure, and  carbohydrates  are  specially  added. 
The  explanation  of  the  action  of  this  pow- 
der is  exactly  the  same  as  in  case  of  or- 
dinary brown  powder. 

Amide  Powder.  —  Amide  powder  consists 

of  potassium  nitrate  (101  parts)  ammonium 

nitrate  (80  parts)  and  charcoal  (40  parts). 

Its  composition  and  explosion  may  be 

represented  by  the  following  reaction: 


CO3  +  12H2O  +  2CN+15CO  +  8N, 

Viooo  =  55.8. 
Powders  containing  ammonium  nitrate 


138 

are  usually  safer  for  use  in  coal  mines  than 
ordinary  powder  or  the  usual  high  explo- 
sives, as  they  do  not  fire  the  mine  so  readily, 
but  some  of  the  more  recent  mixtures 
containing  high  explosives  are  found  in 
practice  to  be  much  more  reliable. 

WestpJialite.  —  Westphalite,  a  blasting 
powder  used  in  coal  mines,  is  composed  of 
ammonium  nitrate  (91  parts),  nitre  (41 
parts)  and  resin  (5  parts). 

Cologne -Eottweiler  Safety  Powtkr.  —  Co- 
logne-Rottweiler Safety  Powder,  another 
blasting  powder,  contains  ammonium  ni- 
trate (  92.3  parts ),  barium  nitrate  ( 0.3 
parts)  and  oil  of  sulphur  (6.4  parts). 

Petroclastite. — Petroclastite  or  Haloclas- 
tite,  is  composed  of  : 

Sodium  nitrate  -  69  parts. 

Potassium  nitrate  -      5     " 

Sulphur     -  10     " 

Coal  tar  15     " 

Potassium  bichromate       -          1 
It  absorbs  less  moisture  than  ordinary 
black  powder,  and  is  less  readily  affected 
by  moisture ;  it  ignites  only  at  350°  C..  and 
burns  with  a  quiet  flame  without  sparks ; 


139 

its  gases  are  not  so  injurious  to  breathe^ 
and  the  smoke  rapidly  settles ;  it  can  be 
detonated  by  an  ordinary  fuse,  and  its. 
force  of  explosion  is  somewhat  greater 
than  that  of  ordinary  gunpowder. 

It  is  particularly  useful  in  mining  soft 
material  like  rock-salt. 

There  are  many  other  mixtures  of  this 
kind  used  in  blasting,  but  they  illustrate 
no  new  principles. 

3. — THE  CHLORATE  GROUP. 

The  chlorate  group  includes  all  those 
mixtures  in  which  the  constituent  to  be 
oxidised  is  some  form  of  carbon,  and  the 
oxidising  constituent  is  a  chlorate.  In  the 
chlorates  used  in  these  mixtures  all  the 
oxygen  is  available  for  combustion,  never- 
theless, weight  for  weight,  potassium  ni- 
trate gives  more  available  oxygen  thart 
potassium  chlorate : 

4  K  N  O8  =  2  K8  O  +  2  N2  +  5  Or 
404.4  :  160  ::  1000  :  V1COO  =  39.56. 

2  K  C  Z  O3  =  2  K  C  I  4-  3  Os. 
245.2  :  96  ::  1000  :  V1000  =  39.15. 


140 

Chlorate  powders  are  all  liable  to  be  ex- 
ploded by  friction  or  percussion,  and  even  . 
spontaneously,  especially  when  long  kept. 

Chlorate  powders,  o£  composition  ex- 
actly similar  to  nitrate  powders,  are  more 
energetic  than  the  latter  for  three  reasons: 

1.  The  atoms  of  potassium  chlorate  are 
held  together  by  so  feeble  an  attraction 
that  when  the  molecule  decomposes  ( as 
above )  the  heat  of  combination  in  forming 
K  C I  and  O2  is  greater  than  the  loss  of  heat 
due  to  the  decomposition  of  the  original 
molecule,  so  that  in  the  chlorates  heat  is 
evolved,   whereas  in  the   nitrates  heat  is 
absorbed,  in  this  part  of  the  process  of 
explosion;  this  heat   adds   its   effects,  of 
course,  to  the  heat  of  explosion  proper. 

2.  The  greater  instability  of  the  chlo- 
rates (in  presence  of  oxidisable  substances) 
causes   greater  rapidity  in  the  chemical 
reactions . 

3.  Dissociation  is  more  apt  to  have  an 
effect  in  moderating  the  rate  of  decomposi- 
tion  in   a   confined   space   (as   explained 
under  Brown  Powder]  in  the  case  of  the 
nitrate    powders,    where    more    complex 


141 

(ternary)  compounds,  such  as  potassium 
sulphate  and  potassium  carbonate,  are 
produced,  than  in  the  case  of  the  chlorate 
powders  (made  just  like  the  nitrate  pow- 
ders), where  the  products  are  all  simpler 
(binary)  and  more  stable  compounds: 

2  K  CZ  03  +  3  C  +  S  =  2  K  Cl  +  C  08 
+  2  C  0  +  S  Oa. 

No  chlorate  powder  of  composition  sim- 
ilar to  ordinary  gunpowder  is  in  use  as 
a  powder.  In  all  the  mixtures  used  or 
proposed  the  sensitiveness  is  reduced  by 
various  expedients :  either  by  replacing 
part  of  the  chlorate  by  a  nitrate  (or  other 
less  energetic  oxidiser),  or  by  adding  com- 
plex compounds  so  as  to  dilute  the  chlorate 
and  at  the  same  time  have  the  moderating 
advantages  of  dissociation. 

In  fuse  compositions  and  priming  pow- 
ders, of  course,  the  suddenness  of  the 
explosion  is  not  only  not  an  objection, 
but  is  in  fact  the  very  quality  desired. 

Aside  from  fuse  compositions  and  prim- 
ing materials,  there  are  but  two  chlorate 
powders  of  any  interest  or  importance. 

Asplmline. — Asphaline   is   composed   o£ 


142 

potassium  chlorate  (54  parts),  bran  (42 
parts ),  potassium  nitrate  and  patassium 
sulphate  (4  parts). 

White  Powder. — White  powder,  German 
powder,  American  powder,  or  Augendre's 
powder,  consists  of  potassium  chlorate  (50 
parts),  potassium  ferrocyanide  (25  parts), 
cane  sugar  (25  parts). 

This  mixture  (besides  being  an  explo- 
sive in  the  ordinary  sense )  can  be  readily 
exploded  by  contact  with  strong  sulphuric 
acid. 

Harvey  Fuse  Composition. — Harvey  fuse 
composition  consists  of  a  mixture  of  po- 
tassium chlorate  ( 17.0  parts ),  cane  sugar 
(4.5  parts)  and  nut-galls  (1.5  parts).  It 
is  ignited  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid. 

U.  S.  Naval  Friction  Fuse  Composition. — 
U.  S.  Naval  friction  fuse  composition  is 
made  by  pulverizing  and  mixing,  under 
alcohol,  potassium  chlorate  (45  parts),  anti- 
mony sulphide  (20.75  parts),  amorphous 
phosphorus  (5.75  parts)  and  carbon  (28.50 
parts).  It  is  used  (while  wet)  for  explod- 
ing torpedoes  by  frictional  electricity. 

English  Priming  Material. — English  prim- 


143 

ing  material  consists  of  copper  subsulphide, 
copper  subphosphide,  and  potassium  chlor- 
ate in  various  proportions,  the  ingredients 
being  mixed  under  alcohol. 

Austrian  Priming  Material.  —  Austrian 
priming  material  is  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  potassium  chlorate  and  antimony 
sulphide,  with  a  trace  of  plumbago. 

-4.— FULMINATE  GROUP. 

The  fulminate  group  is  based  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  the  addition  of  a  chlorate  to  the 
fulminate  renders  the  oxidation  of  the 
carbon  more  complete,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  addition  of  some  inert  solid 
serves  to  regulate  its  action  somewhat; 
or  on  the  fact  that  sulphur  has  a  low  ig- 
niting point  and  burns  with  great  energy 
and  a  flame  not  readily  extinguished,  qual- 
ities which  make  it  useful  for  insuring  the 
communication  of  flame. 

The  mixtures  of  this  group  are  used 
mainly  in  cap  and  fuse  compositions  and 
in  detonators. 

Cap  Composition. — Cap  composition  con- 


144 

«ists,  for  gunpowder  caps,  of  37.5  parts 
mercury  fulminate,  37.5  parts  potassium 
chlorate  and  25  parts  antimony  sulphide  j 
for  blasting  caps,  of  75  parts  mercury  ful- 
minate and  25  parts  potassium  chlorate. 
A  little  ground  glass  is  usually  added,  as 
well  as  a  solution  of  gum. 

The  explosion  of  these  compositions  may 
be  represented  thus  : 

#2  C2  N2  O2  +  4  K  C  I  O3  +  S  &2  S8  = 


O4  ;  and  3  Hg2  C2  N2  O2  +  4  K  C  I  O3 


60, 

Electric  Fuse  Composition.  —  The  fuses  to 
"be  fired  by  electricity  contain  at  one  end 
a  mixture  similar  to  cap  composition,  at 
the  other  a  mixture  of  sulphur  and  ground 
glass,  with  a  thin  layer  of  guncotton  be- 
tween, surrounding  the  wire  whose  fusion 
is  to  ignite  the  fuse. 

Detonators.  —  Detonators  contain  mercury 
fulminate  in  one  end,  a  mixture  of  sulphur 
and  ground  glass  in  the  other,  with  a  layer 
<of  guncotton  between. 

Single  detonators  contain  three  grains  of 


145 

mercury  fulminate,  and  others  are  rated 
as  double,  treble,  etc.,  according  to  the 
weight  of  fulminate  (compared  with  single 
ones)  which  they  contain. 


146 

RECENT  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  SMOKE- 
LESS  POWDERS. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  smokeless  pow- 
der in  use  by  the  world's  armies  and  navies 
to-day  : 

1.  Pure  nitrocellulose  powders. 

2.  Nitrocellulose    powders,    containing 
also  nitroglycerine,  usually  referred  to  as 
"Nitroglycerine  powders.*' 

The  former  are  gradually  gaining  ground 
over  the  latter,  principally  because  of  the 
more  rapid  erosion  of  the  rifling  of  musket 
and  cannon  bores  due  to  the  nitroglycerine. 

The  improvements  in  smokeless  powders 
have  been  very  great  in  recent  years,  but 
each  nation  endeavors  to  keep  the  special 
processes  of  manufacture  employed  as  se- 
cret as  possible. 

Some  of  the  main  features  in  these' im- 
provements can  be  outlined,  however. 

By  simply  reducing  the  weight  of  the 
small-arm  projectile  it  was  found  that  no 
considerable  increase  in  muzzle  velocity 
took  place  (with  the  older  form  of  powder), 


14? 

and  an  increase  in  the  charge  gave  too 
high  pressures. 

Consequently  a  powder  more  progressive 
in  its  action  was  required.  This  has  been 
obtained  partly  by  making  a  denser  mate- 
rial and  partly  by  giving  it  a  more  favor- 
able/or//?, the  combustion  being  regulated 
so  that  the  pressure  of  the  gases,  after 
reaching  its  maximum,  remains  practically 
constant* 

The  muzzle  velocity  has  thus  been  great- 
ly increased,  without  raising  the  pressure 
very  much,  and  yet  the  space  occupied  by 
the  charge  is  the  same  as  in  the  older  car- 
tridge. A  denser  and  finer-grained  pow- 
der has  permitted  of  increasing  the  weight 
of  the  charge  without  increasing  its  vol- 
ume, and  the  more  progressive  combustion 
of  the  powder  keeps  the  pressure  down, 
and  yet  gives  greater  muzzle  velocity,  be- 
cause the  full  pressure  once  attained  acts 
till  the  projectile  leaves  the  bore. 

The  processes  of  making  nitrocellulose 
powders  have  also  been  greatly  improved 
of  late  years. 


148 

The  Cologne-Rottweil  Powder  Works, 
for  example,  wash  the  guncotton  in  closed 
kettles  with  stearn  under  a  pressure  of 
three  to  five  atmospheres,  at  135°  to  150°C. 
This  reduces  the  amount  of  water  required 
so  much  that  only  from  %o  to  %o  of  that 
used  in  the  old  process  is  needed,  and  much 
time  is  saved,  as  only  from  two  to  five  hours 
are  required.  The  result  is  purer  guncot- 
ton than  that  which  had  been  washed  for 
100  hours  by  the  older  process. 

Moreover,  the  fibers  of  the  guncotton 
are  thereby  changed  to  a  fine  dust,  which 
is  better  for  the  subsequent  treatment. 

The  solvent  used  to  gelatinize  the  pow- 
dered nitrocellulose  has  been  acetic  ether  or 
acetone  until  quite  recently.  Now,  ether- 
alcohol  (a  mixture  of  sulphuric  ether  and 
ethyl  alcohol)  is  very  generally  used. 

The  powder,  after  gelatinization,  is 
pressed  through  kneading  machines  into 
cords  of  various  thickness,  from  thin 
threads  to  tubes  of  half  an  inch  or  more  in 
diameter.  The  finer  threads  are  solid  and 
are  used  as  such  in  small-caliber  fire-arms. 


149 

The  tubes  for  larger  caliber  guns  are  hol- 
low (like  macaroni),  so  that  combustion 
takes  place  at  the  same  time  on  the  inner 
surface  as  well  as  the  outer. 

To  make  the  Leaflet  Powder  the  gela- 
tine mass  is  pressed  into  sheets,  cut  into 
strips,  and  the  strips  chopped  off  into 
small  flat  leaflets,  those  of  the  German 
army  powder,  for  example,  having  the  fol- 
lowing dimensions : 

Side  of  square  surface  0.06  in. 

Thickness  0.008  io, 
The  finer  cannon  powder: 

Side  of  square  surface  0.1  in. 

Thickness  0.016-0.020  in. 

The  coarser  cannon  powder: 

Side  of  square  surface  0.2  in. 

Thickness  0.028  in. 

The  powders  in  use  by  the  principal 
nations  of  the  world  are  as  follows  : 

GERMANY. 

The  German  army  uses  pure  nitrocellu- 
lose powder  almost  entirely,  while  the  navy 


150 

uses  nitroglycerine  powder  in  all  its  guns 
except  the  8  mm.  machine  guns. 
FRANCE. 

The  French  use  exclusively  nitrocellu- 
lose powders,  designated  as  B  (Boulenger) 
Powders,  the  latest  being  B  K  (Boulenger 
nouvelle),  gelatinized  by  means  of  ether- 
alcohol,  and  B  M  (Boulenger  marine),  the 
powder  for  the  navy. 

Other  forms  are:  B  G  C  (for  coast 
guns),  B  S  P  (for  siege  and  fortification 
guns),  B  C  (for  field  guns)  and  B  F  (for 
muskets). 

ITALY. 

In  Italy,  Ballistite  is  still  used,  in  various 
forms.  It  is  prepared,  however,  by  add- 
ing from  0.5  to  1.0  per  cent  of  aniline 
(instead  of  diphenylamine)  to  a  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  guncotton  and  nitrogly- 
cerine. It  is  in  granular  form. 

The  field  guns  use  it  in  the  form  of  long 
threads  (hence  called  Filite),  varying  in 
diameter  for  different  calibers  from  0.01 
to  0.02  inch  in  diameter. 

In  1896  Solenite,  consisting  of  about  66 


151 

per  cent,  guncotton,  33  per  cent,  nitrogly- 
cerine and  1.1  per  cent,  vaseline,  was  defi- 
nitely adopted  for  the  infantry  rifle  and 
provisionally  for  field  guns. 

ENGLAND. 

The  form  and  composition  of  the  English 
Cordite  have  been  considerably  changed. 

The  new  powder  is  called  Cordite  M  D 
(modified  cordite),  and  is  similar  to  the 
original  cordite,  but  the  percentage  of  ni- 
trocellulose (or  guncotton)  has  been  raised 
to  65  per  cent.,  while  that  of  the  nitrogly- 
cerine has  been  reduced  to  30  per  cent. 

More  acetone  is  also  used  in  gelatinizing. 

This  new  form  has  less  effect  on  the 
rifling,  and  fire-arms  last  longer  in  conse- 
quence. 

For  small  arms  it  is  made  in  the  form 
of  long  thin  strips,  which  are  bundled  to- 
gether for  the  charge  of  a  musket,  the 
strips  being  the  full  length  of  the  charge. 

AUSTRO-HUNGARY. 

In  Austro-Hungary  a  pure  nitrocellulose 
powder  is  used,  in  various  forms: 


152 

For  muskets,  in  the  form  of  very  small 
discs;  for  field  guns  in  cylinders,  for  siege 
guns  in  square  leaflets,  for  rapid-fire  guns 
in  strips,  and  for  guns  of  heavy  caliber  in 
the  form  of  hollow  tubes. 

EUSSIA. 

Russia  uses  the  pyrocollodion  powder 
both  in  the  navy  and  the  army,  and  gener- 
ally in  the  form  of  leaflets  or  flat  squares 
of  various  sizes  and  thickness. 

These  are  the  principal  powders  in  use 
by  the  world's  armies  and  navies  at  the 
present  time,  but  changes  are  very  rapid 
nowadays  and  all  nations  are  striving  to 
surpass  one  another  in  the  ballistic  quali- 
ties of  their  fire-arms,  hence  also  in  their 
powders. 

Improvements  are  being  constantly 
made,  'but  as  the  processes  are  kept  secret, 
they  are  slow  to  become  generally  known 
to  the  world  at  large. 


INDEX. 

Page- 
Abel's  Powder,  ....  95 
Aetna  Powder,  ....  105 
Alcohols,  .....  64 
Alcohol  Series,  .  .  .  .65 
Alcohol  Series,  Derivatives  of  .  .64 
Alcohols,  Jlexatomic,  Derivatives  of  .  72 
' '  Triatomic,  Derivatives  of .  .  65 
American  Powder,  ....  142 
American  Safety  Powder,  .  .  .  105 
Amide  Powder,  .  .  .  .137 
Ammonites,  .  .  .  .  .96 
Ammonium  Hydrazoate,  .  .  ,42 
Ammonium  Picrate,  .  .  .  .57 
Ardeer  Powder,  Nobel  .  .  .102 
Arms  and  Explosives,  .  .  .V,  VI 
Aromative  Series,  Derivatives  of  .  .  49,  62 
AspLaline,  .  .  .  .  .141 
Atlas  Fowder,  .  .  .  28,  105 
Atlas  A  Powder,  .  .  .  .103 
Augendre's  Powder,  ....  142 
Austrian  Priming  Material,  .  .  .  143 
Azo-benzene,  .  .  .  .43 
Azo- compounds,  .  .  .  .42 

Ballistite,        .  120 

Bellite, 28,  91 


Page. 

Benzene,         .             .  .  .  .50 

Benzene,  Derivatives  of  .  .51 

Benzene  Series,          .  .  .  .49 

Benzene  Series,  Derivatives  of  .  49,  51,  62 

Berthelot,     .            .  .  .  .Ill 

B  N,  Poudre             .  .  .  .110 

Borlinetto's  Powder,  .  .  .95 

B,  Poudre      .             .  .  .  .107 

Bromamide,   .             .  .  .  .40 

Brown  Powder,  Common  .  .  28,   133 

"              DuPont  .  .  28,  137 

Bruff,  Captain  L.  L.  .  .  .VI 

Bruguere's  Powder,   .  .  .  .95 

Cap  Composition,  ....  143 
Carbodynamite,  .  .  .  .102 

Carbolic  Acid,  .  .  .  .54 

Carbonite,  .  .  .  .  .103 

Castellanos  Powder,  .  .  .  105,  106 

Cellulose,  .....  72 
Chemical  Action  in  Explosive  Compounds,  .  3 

"  "  'l         Mixtures,        .  3 

4 '  Composition  of  Explosives,  .  6 

Chemistry  and  Explosives,  Lectures  on, 

Munroe  .  .  .  .  IV,  V 

Chemistry,  Descriptive  General,  Tillman  .  IV,  V 

"  The  New,  Cooke,  .  .V 

Chloramide,  .....  38 
Chlorate  Group  of  Explosive  Mixtures,  .  139 
Classes  of  Explosive  Materials,  .  .  2 

Collodion  Guncotton,  .  .  .75 


IKDEX. 

Page. 

Cologne-Rottweiler  Safety  Powder, 
Composition,  Cap 

Fuse     .  .142 

Priming  .  .  142,  143 

Compounds,  .  .  .36 

Cooke,  Prof.  J.  P.     .  .  -  IV,  V 

Copper  Amine,  .  .  .  .41 

"      Fulminate,     ....         47 

Cordite,  .  •       U9 

Cotton  Powder,  No.  1  .  .       108 

No.  2  .  .  .       109 

No.  3  .  .  .       112 

Cresol,  .....         58 

Critical  Velocity  of  Initial  Decomposition,  .         19 

Cundill,  Lieutenant- Colonel  J.  P.     .  .          V 

Deflagration,  .                                       .  .         15 

Derivatives  of  Benzene,         .  .         51 

"           Naphthalene,             .  .        59 

"           Hexatomic  Alcohols,  .  .         72 

the  Alcohol  Series,     .  .         64 

11           the  Benzene  Series,    .  .  49,  62 

"           the  Naphthalene  Series,  .        59 

11  Toluene,          ...         57 

"           Triatomic  Alcohols,   .  .         65 

Descriptive  General  Chemistry,  Tillman  .         V 

Designolle's  Powder,              .            .  .95 

Detonation  by  Shock, 

"        by  Influence,        .             .  .19 

Detonators,     ....  18,  144 

Diazobenzene  Nitrate,            .             .  .62 


Page. 

Dictionary  of  Explosives,  Cundill  .  .  V,  VI 

Dinitrobenzene,          .  .  .  .53 

Dinitronapthalene,    .  .  .  .60 

Dinitrotoluene  .  .  .  .58 

Dissociation,  .  .  .  .33,  135,  140 

Dualin,  .  .  .  .  .103 

Du  Pont  Brown  Powder,       .  .  28,  137 

Dynamite,  No.  1        .  .  .  .  28,  99 

"          No.  2  .  .  .       102 

Dynamites,     .  .  .  .  .97 

Ecrasite,          ....  58,  122 

Efficiencies  of  Powders  Compared,  .         28,  29,  34 
Electric  Fuse  Composition,  .  .  .       144 

Emmensite,    .  .  .  .  .  28,  95 

English  Priming  Material,     .  .  ,       142 

Explosion  by  Influence,         .  .  .19 

Explosions,  Orders  of  .  .  .18 

Explosion,  The  Force  of  .  .23 

"          The  Phenomena  of          .  .  4 

il          The  Products  of .  .  .         21 

Explosive,  An  ....  1 

Explosive  Compounds,  Groups  of    .  .36 

Explosive  Gelatine,    ...  28,  118 

Explosive  Materials,  ....  1 

Explosive  Materials,  Classes  of  .2 

Explosives,     .....          2 
Explosives,  Chemical  Composition  of  .  6 

Explosives,  Dictionary  of,  Cundill    .  .  V,  VI 

Explosive,  Sevran  Livry        .  .  .108 

Explosives,  High       ....  4 


INDEX.  5 

Page. 

Explosives,  Low         ....  4 

Explosives,   Lectures    on    Chemistry  and, 

Munroe  .  .  .  .  IV,  V 

Explosives,  Lectures  on,  Walke         .  .  IV,  V 

Favier  Powders,         .  .  .  .96 

Filite,  .  .  .  .  .120 

Flameless  Securite,    .  .  .  .92 

Fluoramide,  .....         40 

Fontaine's  Powder,    .  .  .  .95 

Force  of  Explosion.  .  .  .  .23 

Forcite,    .  .  .  .  .122 

Friction  Fuse  Composition,  U.  S.  Naval      .       142 

Fulminate  Group  of  Explosive  Mixtures,     .       143 

Fulminate,  Copper     .  .  .  .47 

"          Gold        ....         47 

"  Mercury  .  .  .  .  28,  46 

"          Platinum.  ...         47 

"          Silver       ....         46 

Silver  Ammonium  .  .         47 

Silver  Potassium  .  .         47 

"  Zinc         ....         47 

Fulminates,    .  .  .  .  .45 

Fuse  Composition,  Electric  .  .  .       144 

"  Harvey    .  .  .142 

U.  S.  Naval  Friction      .       142 

Gelatine  Dynamite,  .  .  .  .122 

Gelatine,  Explosive  ...  28,  118 

Military  .  .  .  .118 

German  Powder,  ....       142 


Page. 

Giant  Powder,  No.  1  .  .  .101 

Giant  Powder,  No.  2  .  .  .103 

Glucose,         .....         72 

Glycerine,       .  .  .  .  .65 

Gold  Fulminate,         .  .  .  .47 

Griess,  P.        .  .  .  .  .43 

Grisoutine,     .  .  .  .  .101 

Grisoutine  Roche,      .  .  .  .97 

Guncotton,     .  .  .  .  .  28,  79 

Guncotton  and  Azo-compound  Mixtures,  .       Ill 

"  "     Nitrobenzene  Mixtures,  .       Ill 

"     Nitroglycerine  Mixtures,  .      116 

"  "     Nitrotoluene  Mixtures,  .       115 

"  '•     Picrate  Mixtures,      .  .       113 

Guncotton  Mixtures,  .  .  .       106 

gunpowder,  Black    ...  28,  125 

"  Brown  .  .  .  .133 

"  Du  Pont  Brown  .  .       137 

Haloclastite,  .            .            .            .  .138 

Harvey  Fuse  Composition,    .            .  142 

Hecla  Powder,            .            .            .  .105 

Hellhoffite,     ....  28,  31,  93. 

Hercules  Powder,       .            .            .  .104 

Hexatomic  Alcohols,  Derivatives  of .  •        72 

High  Explosives,       ....  4 

Horsley  Powder,        .            .            .  .105 

Hydrazoic  Acid,         .            .            .  .41 

Indurite, 112 

lodoamide,     .  .  .  •  .39 


INDEX.  7 

Page. 

Judson  Powder,         .  .  .  .105 

Kohlencarbonit,          .  .  .  .       103 

Lactose,          .....  73 

Leonard  Powder,       .  122 

Low  Explosives,         ....  4 

Lyddite, 114 

Mannite,         .....         72 

Material,  Priming,  Austrian.             .  .143 

English   .             .  .142 

Maxim-Schupphaus  Powder,             .  107,  121 

Melinite,         .             .             .             .  28,  113 

Mendeleef,  Professor             .             .  .28,  34 

Mercury  Amine,         .             .             .  .41 

Mercury  Fulminate.  .             .             .  .  28,  46 

Meta-amidodiazobenzolimide,            .  .         44 

Jfifti-compounds,       .             .             .  .50 

Met  a  ditriazobenzoic  Acid,    .             .  .44 

Metamidotriazobenzoic  Acid,  .  .44 

Militaer  Wochenblatt,            .            .  .VI 

Military  Gelatine,       .             .             .  .118 

Mixtures,  Chlorate  Group     .             .  .139 

"        Containing    Nitre-compounds  or 

Organic  Nitrates  ,             .  .87 
"        Containing  no  Nitro-compounds 

or  Organic  Nitrates           .  "*  .       123 

"        Fulminate  Group .             .  .143 

"         Guncotton             .             .  .106 

"         Guncotton  and  Azo -compound  .       Ill 


Page. 

Mixtures,  Guncotton  and  Nitrobenzene  .       Ill 

"  "  Nitroglycerine  .       116 

Nitrotoluene        .         115 

''  "  Picrate      .  .       113 

4<        Nitrate  Group       .  .  .       124 

"        Nitrobenzene         .  .  .91 

"        Nitrogen  Oxide  Group      .  .       124 

"        Nitroglycerine       .  .  .97 

"         Nitroglycerine  and  Nitrobenzene  .       105 

"  "  Picrate  .       106 

"        Nitronaphthalene,  .  .         96 

"        Picrate       .  .  .  .94 

Mononitrobenzene,    .  .  .  .51 

Mononitronaphthalene,          .  .  .60 

Mononitrctoluene,     .  .  .  .57 

Mortar  Powder,          .  .  .  .28 

Munroe,  Prof.    C.  E.  .  .  .  IV,  V 

Naphthalene,  .  .  .  .59 

Naphthalene,  Derivatives  of  59 

Naphthalene  Series,  Derivatives  of  .  .         59 

Naval  Institute,  Proceedings  of  .  V,  VI 

Naval,  U.  S. ,  Friction  Fuse  Composition  .       142 

u         4<        Smokeless  Powder       .  .109 

Nitramites,     .  .  .  .  .96 

Nitrate  Group  of  Explosive  Compounds,  .       124 

Nitrates,  Organic       .  .  .  .61 

Nitrides,          .....         37 

Nitrobenzene  Mixtures,         .  .  .91 

Nitrobenzene  Mixtures,  Guncotton  and  .       Ill 
Nitrobenzenes,            .             .  51 


INDEX.  9 

Page 

Nitrocellulose,  .  .  .  .74 

Nitrocresol,    .  .  .  .  .58 

Nitro-compounds,      .  .  .  .47 

Nitrocotton,  Soluble .  .  .75 

Nitrogen  Bromide,     .  .  .  .40 

"       Chloride,     ....         38 

"       Fluoride,     ....         40 

"       Iodide,        .  .  .  .-30 

"       Oxide  Group  of  Explosive  Mixtures,    1:24 

"       Sulphide,    .  .40 

Nitroglycerine,  .  .  .  .  28,  65 

Nitroglycerine  and  Nitrobenzene  Mixtures, .       105 

"*  Picrate  Mixtures,  .       106 

Nitroglycerine  Mixtures,        .  .  .07 

Nitroglycerine  Mixtures,  Guncotton  and      .       116 

Nitrohydric  Acid,       .  .  .  .41 

Nitrohydrocellulose,  .  .  .  .87 

Nitromannite,  .  .  .  .73 

Nitronaphthalene  .  .  .    8,  61 

Nitronaphthalene  Mixtures,  .  .         96 

Nitro  Starch,  ....         73 

Nitrosubstitution  Compounds,          .  .         48 

Nitrotoluene,  .  .  .  .58 

Nitrotoluene  Mixtures,  Guncotton  and         .       115 

Nobel  Ardeer  Powder,  .  .  .102 

Normal  Powder,  Swiss  .  *  .       107 

Orders  of  Explosion,  .  .  .18 

Ordnance  and  Gunnery,  Bruff         .  .        VI 

Organic  Nitrates,       .  ...         61 

Origin  of  the  Reactions  in  Explosion,  .         12 


10  INDEX. 

Page. 

Ortho  Compounds,     .            .  *         .  .50 

Oxonite,          .             .             .             .  .  31,  94 

Panclastite,    ....  31,  124 

Para  amidodiazobenzoic  Acid,           .  .         44 

Para  Compounds,     .             .            .  .50 

Para-ditriazobenzene,             .             .  .44 

Petroclastite,               .             .             .  .138 

Peyton  Powder,         .             .             .  .122 
Phenol,           .....         54 

Phenomena  of  Explosion,      ...  4 

Picrate  Mixtures,       .            .            .  .94 

"               Guncotton  and      .  .       113 

4  *               Nitroglycerine  and  .       106 

Picrates,         ...            .  .54 

Picric  Acid,    .            .            .            .  .54 

Plastomenite,              .            .            .  .115 

Platinum  Fulminate,              .  42 

Potassium  Picrate,     .            .            .  .57 

Potentite,       .            .             .            .  .108 

PoudreB, 107 

Poudre  B  N,  .             .            .            .  .110 

Powder,  Abel's           .            .            .  .95 

"        Aetna           .            ...  .105 

"         American     .             .             .  .142 

"         American  Safety      .             .  .105 

"        Amide          .            .            .  .137 

"        Ardeer  (Nobel)        .             .  ,102 

"        Atlas            .            .            .  28,  105 

"        Atlas  A        .            .            .  .103 

"        Augendre's  .             .            .  .142 

B  107 


INDEX.  1 1 

Pa  ,'e. 

Powder,  B  N  .  .  .  .110 

Black          ...  28,  125 

Borlinetto's  ...         95 

"        Brown,  Common     .  .  28,  133 

"  "        DuPont      .  .  28,  137 

"         Bruguere's   .  .  .  .95 

"         CasteUanos  .  .  .  105,  106 

"         Cologne-Rottweiler  Safety  .  .       138 

Cotton  No.  1  .  .  .       108 

2  109 

3  ...       112 
"  Designolle's .  .             .             .95 
"  4  Du  Pont  Brown  Powder     .  28,  137 
"  *Favier          .  .            .            .96 
"  Fontaine's    .  .            .            .95 
11  German        .  .             .             .142 
"  Giant  No.  1,  ...       101 
"  "           2,  103 

Hecla            .             .             .  .105 

"         Hercules      ....       104 

Horsley        .             .             .  .105 

"        Judson         .            .             .  .105 

"        Leonard       .            .            .  .122 

"        Maxim-Schupphaus             .  .       107 

"        Mortar         .            .            .  .28 

"        Naval  Smokeless  (U.  S.)    .  .       109 

"        Nobel  Ardeer           .            .  .102 

Normal  (Swiss)        .            .  .107 

Peyton         .             .             .  .122 

Safety          .  .  89,  97,  101,  104,  138 

"        Safety  (Cologne-Rottweiler)  .      138 


Page. 

Powder,  Schultze       .  .  .  .40 

"         Smokeless    .  .  .  .31 

"         Swiss  Normal  .  .  .       107 

"        Toluol          .  .  .  .115 

"        Troisdorf     .  .  .  .109 

"        U.  S.  Naval  Smokeless        .  .       109 

Vielle's         ....       107 

"        Volney         ....         96 

"        Vulcan         .  .  .  .103 

"        W.-A.  .  .  .  .       120 

"        Wetteren     .  .  .  .122 

"         White  .  .  .  .142 

Powders,  Efficiencies  of,  Compared         28,  29,  34 

'"        Strong  and  Kapid .  .  .        25 

"        Strong  and  Slow    .  26 

Priming  Material,  Austrian  .  .  .       143 

"  English    .  .  .142 

Proceedings  U.  8.  Naval  Institute,  .  .  V,  VI 

Products  of  Explosion,          .  .  .21 

Propagations  of  the  Reactions  in  Explosion,         16 

Pyrocollodion,  .  .  .  .  29,  76 

Qninan  Pressure-gauge,         .  .  28 

Rack-a-Rock,  .  .  .28,  31,  92 

Rapidity  of  Reactions  in  Explosion,  .         14 

Reactions,  Origin  of  the        .  .  .12 

Propagation  of  the  .  .         16 

"          Rapidity  of  the    ...         14 

Rendrock,      .  .  .  .  .105 

ftevue  d>  Artillerie,   .  .  .  .VI 


INDEX.  13 

Page. 

Rifleite,  .  .  .  .  .111 

Roburite,        .  .  .  «  .94 

Romite,          .....         31 

Saccharose,    .             .             .             .  .73 

Safety  Powder,          .            .  89,  97,  101,  104,  138 

"             Cologne-Rottweiler.  .       138 

Schultze  Powder,       .            .            -  .40 

Securite,         .....         92 

Sensitiveness  of  an  Explosive,          .  .        20 

Sevran  Livry  Explosive,        .            .  .108 

Silver  Amine,  ....         41 

Silver-ammonium  Fulminate,             .  .         47 

Silver  Fulminate,       .             .             .  .46 

Silver  Hydrazoate,     .            .            .  .42 

Silver  Nitride,  ....        41 

Silver-potassium  Fulminate,              .  .         47 

Smokeless  Powder,    .             .             .  .31 

11                 Ballistite             .  .       120 

"                  Cordite  .             .  .119 

"                  Filite      .             .  .120 

"                  Indurite.             .  .       112 

"                  Leonard.             .  .       122 

"                  Maxim-Schiipphaus  107,  121 

"                  Peyton  .             .  .122 

"                  Plastomenite      .  .115 

"                 PoudreB           .  .      107 

"                 PoudreB  N       .  .      110 

"                  PyrocoUodion    .  .  29,  76 

1                 Eifleite  .            .  .111 

44                 Schultze  40 


14:  INDEX. 

Page. 

Smokeless  Powder,  Swiss  Normal    .  .       107 
Troisdorf            .  .       109 
IT.  S.  Naval       .  .       109 
"                 W.-A.     .            .  .       120 
"                 Wetteren            .  .       122 
Soluble  Nitrocotton,  .             .            .  .75 
Spontaneous  Decomposition  Causing  Explosion,  15 
Sprengel  Class  of  Explosives, .  29 
"                "            Rack-a-Rock  28,  31,  92 
Hellhoffite  28,  31,  93 
"                 "             Oxonite  .  31,  94 
"                 "            Panclastite  31,  124 
"                 "            Komite  .  .        31 
Starch,            .....        72 
Stonite,           .             .             .      •  .105 
Strength  of  Explosives,         .            .  ^  .28 
Sulphur  Nitride,        .            .            .  .41 
Swiss  Normal  Powder,           .             .  .       107 
Synchronous  Vibrations  in  Explosion  by  In- 
fluence,            .             .             .  .13 

Tetranitronaphthalene,          .             .  .61 

Tillman,  S.  E.,  Professor     .             .  .   .     IV 

Toluene,         .             .            .            .  .57 

Toluene,  Derivatives  of                     .  .57 

Toluol  Powder,           .             .             .  .115 

Tonite,            ....  28,  108 

Triatomic  Alcohols,  Derivatives  of  .  .         65 

Triazo-Azobenzene,  .            .            .  .44 

Trinitrobenzene,        .             .             .  .54 

Trinitrocresol,             .             ,            .  .58 
\ 


INDEX.  1 5 

Page. 

Trinitronaphthalene,  .  •  .61 

Trinitrotoluene,          .  .  .  .58 

Troisdorf  Powder,     .  .  .  .109 

U.  S.  Naval  Friction  Fuse  Composition,       .       142 

*  *  Smokeless  Powder,       .  .      109 

VieUe's  Powder,         .  .  .  .107 

Vigorite,         .  .  .  .  .104 

Volney  Powders,        .  .  .  .96 

Vortex  Motion  in  Explosion  by  Influence,   .        13 
Vulcan  Powder,          ....       103 

Walke,  lieut.  W.  .            .            .            .  IV,  V 

W.-A.  Powder,  .            .            .            .120 

Westphalite,  .  .             .            .             .138 

Wetterdynamite,  •            .       101 

Wetteren  Powder,  .            .            .            .122 

White  Powder,  ....      142 

Xyloidine,      .  .  .  „  .  ,      74 


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r  T,  W.  WRIGHT,  of  Union  College. 

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Bowser's  Analytic  Mechanics* 

An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Analytic   Medv     ; 
With   numerous   examples.      By  EDW.   A*   BOWSER, 
LL,D,     1 2th  Edition-     12 mo,  cloth    *   .   »   *   *   $3.00. 

Eiemeniiry  Mechanics,  indudinj  Hydrostatics 

a^d  Pneumatics* 

By  Professor  OLIVER.  J.  LODGE.  Revised  Edition* 
I2mo,  cloth,  illustrated  .  «  .  •  •  .  .  •  *  .  $l*5<X 

Applied  Mechanics, 

A  Treatise  for  the  Use  of  Students  who  have  time  to 
Work  Experimental,  Numerical,  and  ^--aphical  Exer- 
cises, Illustrating  the  Subject.  By  JoHN  PERRY,  M.E., 
Dfc.Sc.,  F.R.S.  8vo, cloth.  . '- 


